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ECCLESIASTICAL CHRONOLOGY. 



London : 

Printed by A. Spottiswoode, 

New- Street- Square, 



@ttlt£iK£titul @t)X(molaQg ; 



OR, 



ANNALS 

OF 

THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH, 

FROM ITS FOUNDATION TO THE PRESENT TIME : 

CONTAINING A 

VIEW OF GENERAL CHURCH HISTORY, 

AND THE 

COURSE OF SECULAR EVENTS; 



THE LIMITS OF THE CHURCH, AND ITS 

RELATION TO THE STATE ; 
CONTROVERSIES ; 



SECTS AND PARTIES ; 

RITES, INSTITUTIONS, DISCIPLINE 

ECCLESIASTICAL WRITERS. 



THE WHOLE ARRANGED ACCORDING TO THE ORDER OF DATES, 

AND 

DIVIDED INTO SEVEN PERIODS. 

TO WHICH ARE ADDED, 

LISTS OF COUNCILS, AND OF POPES, PATRIARCHS, AND ARCHBISHOPS 

OF CANTERBURY. 



BY THE REV 



. J. E. K 



IDDLE, M.A. 



Author of "A Manual of Christian Antiquities," " Sermons, 
"A Latin-English Dictionary," &c. 



LONDON : 

LONGMAN, ORME, BROWN, GREEN, AND LONGMANS, 



paternoster row. 



1840. 



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PREFACE. 



A knowledge of Church History is requisite for every 
Christian scholar, and especially for every student of 
theology, next to an acquaintance with Holy Scripture 
and with the human heart. 

The due cultivation of this branch of study is a work 
of time and labour ; nor can the subject be thoroughly 
understood without the patient examination of many 
voluminous records, and other works, both ancient and 
modern. This field of inquiry is, therefore, so wide, 
that it cannot be explored, in all its parts, by the mind 
of any individual student. And the scholar who may 
desire to throw light upon ecclesiastical history, or to 
deduce from it any important principles, would do well 
to confine his attention to some single section of 
events ; or, if he choose to survey a more exten- 
sive series of facts and occurrences, he may find it 
profitable to regard and treat them under some peculiar 
point of view. Thus may a most important service be 
performed in this department of theological literature. 

At the same time, a compendious view of the whole 
range of ecclesiastical history has its use, in various 
ways, and to large classes of readers. Such an outline 
is valuable, and even more or less necessary, — as a 
manual for younger students, — as a source of inform- 
ation for those persons who have no means of pur- 
suing the study to its full extent, — and also as an 

a 3 



VI PREFACE. 

auxiliary, for various purposes, in the hands of the 
more advanced ecclesiastical scholar. 

Our own language has been hitherto extremely 
deficient in books of this kind, as well as in more 
elaborate performances in the department of Church 
History ; and it is hoped that the present work will 
meet with some degree of favour and acceptance, as 
being an attempt to supply so remarkable a want. 

Outlines of history may be composed either in the 
form of succinct continuous narrative, or in the shape 
of annals. Of these two plans, the latter has been 
adopted in the following pages, which contain an enu- 
meration of the principal subjects of Church History 
arranged in chronological order. Several advantages, of 
great importance, have been thus secured. The detail 
of events is more copious and explicit than any which 
can be contained in a compendium of this size when 
written as an entire narrative, and designed to exhibit 
a regular classification of facts and incidents. The 
form of annals has also its peculiar utility with reference 
to the philosophy of history, inasmuch as it serves to 
point out and illustrate the connection, dependence, 
and relations of events. Accuracy of information and 
truth of reasoning is, in many ways, connected with a 
right understanding of the succession of those events 
and agents whose records make up the page of history. 
And, to some minds more especially, an arrangement 
of historical facts according to their dates is peculiarly 
valuable as an aid to memory. It may be observed, 
also, that the historical method has been here combined 
with the chronological arrangement, in the division of 
the whole work into leading periods, and in the de- 
scriptive or narrative style of those articles which relate 



PREFACE. Vll 



to the principal subjects of ecclesiastical record ; so 
that, while the work may be used as a set of Chrono- 
logical Tables, for reference, it may also be available for 
the reader who seeks an acquaintance with the general 
outline of Ecclesiastical History, or with the nature and 
bearing of any particular event. 

In the preparation of this volume, recourse has been 
had to the usual sources of Church History. The 
chronological and synchronistic Tables of several emi- 
nent German writers, namely, Walch, Semler, Seiler, 
Schrock, and Vater, have been consulted and occasion- 
ally employed. Several hints also have been taken, and 
a few passages extracted, from the valuable compendium 
of Guerike ; — a work truly excellent of its kind, 
and worthy of high regard, as conveying an unusual 
amount of well condensed information, and as being 
distinguished by general accuracy, and written on sound 
philosophical principles. 

The study of Church History can be to no readers 
more important or more delightful than to the members 
of our own Reformed Church, which is occupied in the 
simple proclamation of divine truth, and the due celebra- 
tion of divine worship, while, at the same time, it jjrotests 
against theological error, ecclesiastical usurpation, and 
the follies of vain superstition. Spiritual tyranny, su- 
perstition, and fanaticism, supported by ignorance on 
the one hand, and by deceitful and ambitious preten- 
sions on the other, have been, from age to age, the 
great pests of the Christian Church, and have presented 
grievous obstacles to a wide dissemination, and a pro- 
fitable reception, of the pure and holy doctrines of the 
Gospel. Records which bear upon their surface this 
striking, but melancholy, truth, demand the humble, 



Vlll PREFACE. 



serious, and candid attention of every member of the 
great Christian community. We may learn wisdom 
from the mistakes of ancient churches ; humility and 
charity from the quarrels and dissensions which have 
subsisted among those of both earlier and later date ; 
and a devout admiration of that overruling providence 
of God, v/hereby divine truth has been preserved even 
under an accumulation of human errors, and the lustre 
of this cherished truth has been made to appear more 
glorious, by its contrast with human ignorance and 
folly. While we look to the Bible, and the Bible alone, 
as the depository and rule of our faith, we may do well 
to consult the annals of the Church for warnings 
against those manifold perversions to which truth be- 
comes liable in the hands of man/ And may not the 
members of our scriptural communion derive from the 
records of the past many a reason, not indeed for idle 
self-complacency, arising from a proud comparison of 
themselves with others, but yet for cheerful thankful- 
ness to the Great Disposer of all events and the Giver 
of all good? Surely we have abundant cause to rejoice, 
with gratitude, in the consideration that we are mem- 
bers of a church which establishes its claims to respect, 
attachment, and support, not on the false assumption of 
any inherent authority, — not on the assertion of its 
ancient origin, or the number and learning of its mem- 
bers, — but on its efficiency as a teacher and expositor 
of divine truth, in conformity with the word of inspir- 
ation, — on its value as a guide to worship, at once 
rational and devout, — and on its character as a pro- 
moter of zealous and well-directed efforts in God's ser- 
vice ! Well may we recognize our happiness in being 
members of a Christian community which teaches from 



PREFACE. IX 

the Bible, and not from tradition, — which proclaims 
apostolical truth, instead of boasting of apostolical suc- 
cession, — which builds upon the sure word of God, 
instead of appealing to the forgeries and impostures of 
human fraud, or to the speculations of human imbecility 
and error, — and which is bound, by its own funda- 
mental principles, to maintain the language of courtesy 
and respect, and to hold out the right hand of Christian 
fellowship, towards all other churches in which the 
pure word of God is preached, and the sacraments are 
duly administered. We may thank God also that, 
while our church has rejected the claims of spiritual 
tyranny, she has had the wisdom to retain a form of 
good government which has subsisted, under various 
modifications, from the apostles' times, and is eminently 
adapted to do good service in our own country at the 
present day, and under the existing condition of 
society. We may, moreover, find cause for rejoicing in 
the circumstance that our communion, after having 
renounced those follies, of heathen origin, whereby 
the beauty of Christian worship was for a long time 
tarnished, is yet distinguished by that reverence for 
things sacred, and that attention to positive institu- 
tions, outward observances, and the decencies of order, 
which equally accord with the majesty of God and the 
nature of man, and are suited to the relation that 
subsists between the human worshipper and the great 
object of adoration. And we may feel no less grateful 
in remembering that, under the good providence of 
God, we have been incorporated into a society which, 
while it knows nothing of the fanaticism of early ascetics, 
or the extravagances of more modern visionaries, yet 
does not lose sight of the fact that Religion, rightly so 



X PREFACE. 

called, is not only truth in the intellect but love in the 
heart, not merely a light of the understanding but the 
life of the soul ; existing not in letter but in spirit ; 
not so much a theme of abstract and retired con- 
templation, as a principle of self-devotion towards God 
and active benevolence towards man, — the spring of 
lively and zealous endeavour in the ways of holiness 
and virtue, — the giver of glory to God in the highest, 
and the fostering patron of unfeigned good- will towards 
the great Christian community under all its denomi- 
nations, and towards the whole family of mankind in 
every climate under heaven. 

J. E. R. 

Cheltenham, 
September 29th, 1840, 



CONTENTS. 



Preface - _ . . - - - _ Page v 

PERIOD I. 

From the Foundation of the Christian Church to the First 
General Council, A. D. 33 — 325. - - 1 

PERIOD II. 

From the First General Council to the Death of Gregory 
the First, A. D. 325—604. . - - -63 

PERIOD III. 

From the Death op Gregory the First to the Death of 
Charlemagne, A. D. 604 — 814. - - - - 150 

PERIOD IV. 
From the Death of Charlemagne to the Pontificate of 
Gregory VII., A. D. 814— 1073. - - - -184 

PERIOD V. 

From the Accession of Gregory VII. to the Beginning of the 
Reformation, A. D. 1073— 1517. - -230 

PERIOD VI. 
Era of the Reformation, A. D. 1517 — 1555. - - - 331 

PERIOD VII. 
From the Reformation to the present Time, A. D. 1556 — 1837. 364 

Index -.___.. 477 



In the following pages. 
The asterisk (#) distinguishes matter relating to British Churches. 

The obelisk (|) is equivalent to obiit ; denoting the death of the 
individuals to whose name it is prefixed. 

In the column of dates, a dash ( — ) signifies that the clause 
opposite to which it is placed relates to precisely the same year as 
that last mentioned. When a blank occurs, the reader will under- 
stand that the date of the corresponding historical matter is more 
indefinite. 



ECCLESIASTICAL CHRONOLOGY, 



PERIOD I. 



FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH 
TO THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL. 

33— 325. 



33 



Tiberius, Emperor. 
Pontius Pilate, Procurator of Judaea. 
During the reign of Tiberius, the Roman power was at 
its height. The empire was enlarged in several directions. 
The Jews impatient of their subjection to Rome. 



Crucifixion, Resurrection, and Ascension of 
OUR LORD AND SAVIOUR, JESUS CHRIST, 
who is the foundation stone of the Christian Church, and 
the great subject of Christian doctrine. 

THE DISPENSATION OF THE SPIRIT BEGINS. 
The Apostles, under divine agency, become the found- 
ers of Christian churches. 



Baptism, and the Lord's Supper, administered according 
to our Saviour's holy institution. 

Assemblies for divine worship, under the superintendence 
of the Apostles, probably upon the model of the synagogue. 

(Breaking of bread ; prayer; psalmody; preaching.) 



FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH (First 

33 Acts of Pilate. Justin Martyr (Apol. 1.) refers to some 

acts or despatches of Pilate, perhaps genuine. 



Soon after the day of Pentecost, the number of disciples 
in Jerusalem amounted to more than five thousand. 

Persecution of the Apostles at first not very severe or 
successful at Jerusalem. (Divisions in the Sanhedrim re- 
specting the doctrine of the resurrection. Absence of the 
Roman procurator, who resided at Csesarea, and went to 
Jerusalem only on the great festivals.) 



34) 34 — 41. First Period of Apostolic History. 

Gospel preached to the Jews in Judaea, Samaria, and 
Antioch. 

Appointment of the Seven Deacons. 
(Deacons probably from the beginning. The seven an 
addition of Hellenistic officers to Jews already appointed.) 

Death of St. Stephen. 

Pharisees and Sadducees unite in persecuting the dis- 
ciples. Saul active in the persecution. Consequent dis- 
persion of the disciples, a means of the more extensive 
propagation of the Gospel, beyond Palestine and Phoe- 
nicia, to Antioch, Cyprus, and Cyrene. 

35 First apostolical journey of St. Peter. 

Acts ix. 32. 

It is probable that all the Apostles were employed in 
visiting disciples in different places, as well as in founding 
churches ; and that during these visits they established a 
regular ministry ; that is to say, persons were appointed 
to superintend public worship, and to manage the funds 
of Christian societies, subject to the direction and advice 
of the Apostles. 

(al. 38.) Conversion of St. Paul. 

(But some suppose this event to have taken place a 
few months only after our Lord's ascension. Perhaps 
the Apostle resided at Tarsus several years after his 



Period.) to the first general council. 3 

conversion, during which time his preaching was confined 
to that neighbourhood.) 



The doctrine of the Church during this period is con- 
tained in the books of Holy Scripture. 



The first Christians formed a common fund, from 
which distribution was made to the poorer members of 
the Church ; but they do not appear to have established a 
community of goods, strictly speaking; except, perhaps, 
in the Church of Jerusalem, for a time. There were 
rich and poor among Christians when the Apostles wrote. 

Feasts of charity in connection with the Lord's Supper. 



Simon Magus in Samaria. 



Pontius Pilate banished. Judaea and Samaria annexed 
to the presidentship of Syria. Persecution relaxed. 

Caligula, Emperor. 

Herod Agrippa, King of Galilee, 

The reign of Caligula was favourable to the growth of 
the infant Church. The Jewish authorities anxious to 
protect themselves. 



Some critics (Le Clerc ; Eichhorn) have imagined the 
existence of an original gospel (Protevangelion), on the 
basis of which the four now extant were composed. But 
this appears to be a mere speculation or theory, deficient 
in historical and critical proof. 

(or 38.) Probably, the Gospel by St.Mattheic, in Aramaic. 

The existence of this early composition is deemed pro- 
bable by many, who join in rejecting the theory of the 
Protevangelion; but it is very doubtful, and altogether 
denied by some judicious critics. 

The fact appears to be, that the Gospel was at first 
b 2 



40 



41 



42 



43 
44 



FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH (First 

contained in the tradition, or oral preaching, of the eye- 
witnesses of its facts, and the disciples of its great sub- 
ject. 

Barnabas sent to Antioch. 
Church of Antioch founded by Barnabas and by other 
disciples who had fled from Jerusalem on occasion of for- 
mer persecutions. 

Christianity spreads rapidly. 



Claudius, Emperor. 
Herod Agrippa, King of all Palestine. 



Conversion of Cornelius. 
(But some suppose this to have taken place as early as 
the second year after the crucifixion.) 



41 — 45. Second Period of Apostolic History. 
Gospel preached to Jews and devout Gentiles (after the 
conversion of Cornelius). 

The disciples first called Christians at Antioch. 

St. Paul at Antioch a whole year. 

Simon Magus at Rome. 



The sacred seasons now observed by Christians were, — 
the Jewish Sabbath, and the Lord's day, weekly, and the 
Festival of the Resurrection annual. Jewish converts ob- 
served also other times and seasons, according to the 
Mosaic institutions. 

Among customs of the apostolical churches may also be 
reckoned, — the holy kiss, fasting, the anointing of the sick, 
and imposition of hands in benediction, on appointment 
to the ministry, and on other occasions. 



James the Elder put to death. Peter imprisoned. 



Death of Herod Agrippa. All Palestine a Roman 

province. 

Cuspius Fadus, Procurator. 

Theudas, a Jewish impostor, beheaded. 



Period.) to the first general council. 5 

Hitherto the labours of the Apostles had been confined 
to Palestine. 

Paul and Barnabas go with contributions to Jerusalem, 
and return to Antioch (Acts xi. 30.). 

Presbyters or elders had been appointed at Jerusalem 
some time before this event. Perhaps they had existed 
in the churches of provincial towns in Judaea even before 
they were found needful at Jerusalem. 



47,48 



Tiberius Alexander, Procurator of Judcea. 



St. Paul's first apostolical journey, with Barnabas. 

45 — 70. Third Period of Apostolic History. 

Gospel preached to idolatrous Gentiles, as well as 
to Jews and Gentiles (after the call of Paul and Bar- 
nabas). But converted Gentiles were considered as dis- 
tinct in some respects, until the destruction of Jerusalem, 
a.d. 70. 

St. Paul leaves St. Luke in temporary charge of the 
church at Philippi, Silas or Silvanus at Bercea, and 
Timothy at Thessalonica. (Perhaps Dionysius, the Are- 
opagite, was left in charge of the church at Athens, but 
there is no proof of this.) 

(al. 49.) Claudius expels the Jews from Rome. 



Onkelos, Chaldee translator of the Pentateuch, h\ 



Sts. Paul and Barnabas resident at Antioch. 
Debates at Antioch respecting the necessity of impo- 
sing upon the Gentile converts circumcision and the 
keeping of the whole Mosaic law. 



Cumanus and Felix, Procurators of Judcea, Samaria, and 
Galilee. 

b 3 



6 FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH (First 

49 (al. 52.) Assembly of the Apostles, Elders, and 
whole Church at Jerusalem. 

(Question brought by Paul and Barnabas from Antioch 
considered. An epistle written, containing the decision 
of the assembly. Paul and Barnabas return to Antioch. 
Circumcision of Gentile converts and their conformity to the 
whole Mosaic law declared unnecessary.) 



Gnosticism at Ephesus and other places. 



(The confession of faith, commonly called The Apostles' 
Creed, ascribed by tradition to the assembled Twelve, is a 
compilation of later date ; but it faithfully represents the 
outlines of the Apostles' doctrine.) 



State of religion among Gentiles and Jews in the Roman 
empire at the beginning of the Christian era. 

Among the heathen a general scepticism and extreme 
impiety had been succeeded, to a certain extent, by a re- 
currence to ancient belief, together with an admixture of 
Asiatic and Egyptian superstition ; so that, among the 
multitude, unbelief and superstition held a divided sway. 
Among educated men there was much inquiry, and 
several systems of philosophy were in vogue, chiefly that 
of the Stoics, which taught men to seek happiness in the 
exercise of innate moral power ; and that of the Platonists, 
which inculcated a dependence on a higher power, and 
taught men to seek virtue and happiness in a communion 
with the Supreme. Stoicism was proud, and as unsuc- 
cessful in its pretensions as it was vain ; Platonism was 
ineffectual, because it could not teach men how to find the 
good which it proposed to their apprehension. 

Among the Jews, the popular religion had greatly de- 
generated, and was characterised by pride and a worldly 
spirit, the members of that nation regarding themselves 
as exclusively the favourites of Heaven, and being de- 
sirous of temporal prosperity, and especially of deliver- 
ance from the Roman yoke, as their chief good. The 
theology of Palestine, as it existed among its divines and 



Period.) to the first general council. 7 

students, was comprised in the three forms of (so called) 
orthodoxy, rationalism, and mysticism ; the first being 
the system of the Pharisees, the second that of the Sad- 
ducees, the third that of the Essenes. At the same time, 
the Jews of Alexandria had constructed a peculiar system 
by their adoption of Platonic notions, and their conse- 
quent habit of allegorising Scripture. Some of them 
received the Old Testament in its literal as well as its 
supposed allegorical sense, but others rejected the literal 
meaning altogether. 

50 — 53. (al. 53—56.) St. Paul's second journey, with 
Silas, and afterwards Timothy and Luke, through 
Syria, Cilicia, Lycaonia, Phrygia, Galatia, and Greece 
(Macedonia, Athens, Corinth). 

Barnabas went to Cyprus with Mark. 



First and second Epistles to the Thessalonians. 

(N. B. The dates assigned by some chronologists for 
the several books of the New Testament are a few years 
earlier than those generally received.) 

or 53. Epistle to the Galatians. 



Claudius Felix, sole Procurator of Judcea. 
Nero, Emperor. 
Agrippa, already king of Trachonitis, receives the 
addition of Galilee, and some towns in Trachonitis. 



54 — 58. (al.56 — 60.) St. PauVs third journey ; Galatia, 
Phrygia, Ephesus (residence) ; Macedonia, Greece ; Je- 
rusalem. 

Festus, Procurator of Judcea. 

The Ministers of the Church during this century were — 
Apostles and their assistants; Evangelists; Prophets; 
Elders or Bishops, who were teachers and general over- 
seers of particular churches ; Deacons, who were teachers, 
almoners, and general assistants, especially of presbyters ; 
Deaconesses; Widows. 

b 4 



56 

57 
58 



60 
61 



62 



FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH (First 

Judaizing teachers in Asia Minor. Gnostic and 
Judaizing teachers at Corinth and Rome. 



First Epistle to the Corinthians. 

or 58. Epistle to the Romans. 

Second Epistle to the Corinthians. 



St. Paul made prisoner at Ccesarea. 



(al. 55.; al. 63.) St. Paul sent to Home, where he ar- 
rived in the following year. 



The Gospel by St. Matthew in Greek. 

Epistle to the Ephesians. Epistle of St. James. 

The Gospel by St. Mark ; between the years 60 and 63. 



About this time St. Mark (probably) founded a church 
at Alexandria. 

Albinus, Procurator ofJudaa. 



or 63. James the Just, President of the Church of 
Jerusalem, put to death. 



Epistle to the Colossians. 
or 63. Epistles to the Philippians, to Philemon, to the 
Hebrews. 

53 St. Paul released. 

(After his release he probably visited Spain, and re- 
turned by way of Crete to Jerusalem, thence to Antioch 
in Syria.) 

or 64. Gospel by St. Luke. Acts of the Apostles. 



64 The burning of Rome. 

Persecution at Rome under Nero, commonly called 
The First Persecution, 

(It lasted four years. It probably extended to the 
provinces. According to an old inscription, it raged in 
Spain.) 



Period.) to the first general council. 9 

Perhaps about this time St. Paul undertook another 
journey ; passing through Colosse, Philippi, Nicopolis in 
Epirus, Corinth, Troas, and Crete, to Rome. 



First Epistle to Timothy. Epistle to Titus. First 

Epistle of St. Peter. 

or 65. Epistle of St. Jude. 

Second Epistle of St. Peter. Second Epistle to Timothy. 



Gessius Florus, Procurator of Judcea. 
There are traditions to the effect that St. Paul planted 
Christianity in Spain, Gaul, and Britain, but very uncer- 
tain. It is not improbable that the Gospel was preached 
in those countries during the reign of Nero. 

St. Paul a second time at Rome; imprisoned. 

The Jewish War begins. 
Christians retire from Jerusalem to Pella. 
St. Paul and St. Peter put to death at Rome. 



Epiphanius says that the founders of the sects of the 
Nazarenes and Ebionites were among the Christians who 
retired to Pella. At all events, the Nazarenes, or Christ- 
ians who strictly adhered to the Mosaic Law, began to 
be distinguished as a sect about this time. — Hitherto, 
converts from among Jews and Devout Gentiles had con- 
formed to the Mosaic ceremonial ; but not so those from 
among Idolatrous Gentiles. 



Galea, Emperor. 
After the death of Nero, an opinion prevailed among 
Christians that he had not destroyed himself, but had 
retired beyond the Euphrates with the design of re- 
appearing as Antichrist, 
or 69. First, Second, and Third Epistles of St. John. 



Otho ; — Vitellius ; — Vespasian, Emperors. 



al. 72. Destruction of Jerusalem. 



10 FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH (First 

Vespasian did not persecute the Christians as such; 
but probably they were molested during his reign and 
that of Titus by the demand of the Jewish capitation tax. 



The duties and office of ordinary Christian minis- 
ters, — superiors and inferiors, presbyters and deacons, 
7rps<r£uTsf>oi diuxovoi and vswrepoi diaxovoi, — probably un- 
derwent continual changes and modifications during the 
first century, according to circumstances, and the wants of 
particular churches. — During this period the constitution 
of the church was not uniform and settled : it contained 
the elements of various forms of government; but the 
system of subordination (episcopacy) soon prevailed in 
the larger communities ; and, in the course of the next 
century, it predominated to the exclusion of other schemes 
(presbyterian ; independent). 

79 Titus, Emperor. 

81 Domitian, Emperor. 



A church was founded at Edessa on the Euphrates, pro- 
bably before the end of this century. 

During the Apostolic Age, the usual designations of the 
professors of the Gospel were the following : — Disciples ; 
Brethren and Sisters ; Believers ; Saints ; Christians. 



Gnosticism 
had now made great progress. This was a combination 
of Oriental and Platonic philosophy, and also, in some 
cases, Judaism, with certain elements of Christian doctrine. 
The system was subject to various modifications in the 
hands of different teachers and parties. Its prominent 
features were ; The doctrine of Emanation; — The doctrine 
of Emanation combined with that of Dualism ; and this 
Dualism, either according to the Oriental scheme (matter 
an evil principle and active), or the Alexandrian (matter 
an evil principle, but passive) ; — Admission or rejection 
of the Jewish Scriptures : Judaizing and Anti-Jewish 
Gnostics. 



Period.) to the first general council. II 

The Gnostics regarded Christ as one of their supposed 
later emanations from the Deity, and as having been sent 
into the world to remedy the disorders occasioned by the 
fancied Demiurgus or creature iEon. They thus denied 
the real divinity of Christ ; and at the same time they 
destroyed the doctrine of the union of the two natures, or 
of our Lord's true and proper humanity, by framing a 
distinction between Christ and Jesus, and, in some cases, 
supposing the latter to have been a mere phantom. 



Persecution under Domitian, commonly called 
The Second Persecution. 

Search after the descendants of David in Judaea. 
Grandsons of St. Jude examined and acquitted. — Christ- 
ians return to Jerusalem before the end of Domitian's reign. 



Propagation of the Gospel. 

The Apostles and their companions established Christ- 
ianity in Palestine, Syria, Asia Minor, Macedonia, 
Greece, Italy, and Egypt. — The principal churches which 
they founded were at Jerusalem, Antioch, Rome, and 
Alexandria; also at Ephesus, Colosse, Laodicea, Thessa- 
lonica, Philippi, Corinth, Smyrna, Sardis, and in Crete. 
— Thus far authentic history. 

Christian converts chiefly from the middling and lower 
classes of society. 

Christian virtue flourishes 
both in theory and practice. It consists in an honest and 
cheerful endeavour to discharge all duties to God and 
man. The source or foundation of this virtue is a simple 
and lively faith in Christ the Saviour of the world. 

But there were not wanting hypocrites or false pro- 
fessors, — vicious and disorderly members, — sins of in- 
firmity, and other defects, which are inseparable from the 
condition of the visible church upon earth. 

Discipline, extending to all classes of Christians alike, — 
was either extraordinary or ordinary : the former consist- 
ing in punishments inflicted by the Apostles, in virtue of 



12 FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH (First 

their miraculous powers and divine authority ; the latter 
in the exclusion of offenders from communion with the 
church in acts of divine worship. 

The first controversies among Christians originated with 
certain Judaizing teachers (false Apostles). They took 
their rise at Antioch, and although decided by the assem- 
bly of the church at Jerusalem and by the express de- 
clarations of St. Paul, they were renewed or continued in 
various churches. The chief subjects of debate were, — the 
necessity of imposing the Mosaic Law upon converts from 
heathenism, — the doctrine of justification, or the found- 
ation and terms of man's acceptance with God, — the 
Abrahamic covenant, — the use of meat offered in sacri- 
fice to idols, — the apostleship of St. Paul. 



96 Nerva, Emperor. 

Nerva recals the exiles, and makes some regulations 
for the protection of Christians. 



Menander. — Docetce ; so called from their having be- 
lieved the body of Jesus to have been a phantom, — thus 
denying the proper humanity of our Saviour. 

Cerinthus, in Asia Minor, a Judaizing Gnostic. 



or 97. Revelation of St. John. 
97 or 98. Gospel by St. John, 

(The Gnostic tenets, containing an admixture of im- 
perfect or distorted Christian doctrine, not only seduced 
many from the faith of the Gospel, but probably obscured 
or perplexed the tenets of some who remained, on the 
whole, firm in their belief of essential Christian truth.) 



The ministry of Prophets in the Church had probably 
ceased before this time. 



98 Trajan, Emperor. 

Dissensions at Corinth relating to discipline. Some 
presbyters dismissed. Deputation from the Christians at 



Period.) to the first general council. 13 

Rome with a view to restore unanimity. Episcopal form 
of government not yet established at Corinth. No au- 
thoritative interference on the part of Rome ; — an epistle 
written in the name of the whole Church, by Clement, its 
president or bishop. 

The Church of Rome superior to all others in numbers 
and in wealth. No claim to authority over other churches 
until the close of the second century. 

N.B. The epistle of Clement to the Church of Corinth 
is the only genuine work of any uninspired Christian writer 
of the first century now extant. 



100 



Death of St. John, about this time. 



No evidence of any persecution at Rome during the 
reign of Trajan. But an edict prohibiting Hetseriae, or 
secret societies, was brought to bear against the 
Christians. 

Churches were now established in the principal cities of 
Asia Minor, in Palestine, Egypt, Greece, and Italy. The 
heathen manifest opposition and hostility. 



Constitution and Government of the Church. 

The Apostles or their representatives exercised a ge- 
neral superintendence over the churches by divine au- 
thority, attested by miraculous gifts. The subordinate 
government of each particular church was vested in itself; 
that is to say, the whole body elected its minister and 
officers, and was consulted concerning all matters of im- 
portance. All churches were independent of each other, 
but were united by the bonds of holy charity, sympathy, 
and friendship. But this state of things did not last long. 

In other words. The original constitution of the 
church was a supreme Theocracy, together with a subor- 
dinate Democracy, modified by an elective Aristocracy. 
The head of the whole body was the Lord Jesus Christ, 
ruling by his Spirit, through the immediate agency of the 
Apostles. This Theocracy was designed to be perpetual ; 



14 FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH (First 

and the Holy Gospels, and other inspired writings of the 
New Testament, were composed and left as the repre- 
sentatives, or, so to speak, successors, of the Apostles to the 
end of time. In like manner, the subordinate Democracy, 
with its elective Aristocracy of rulers and teachers, was 
designed to subsist and to exercise its functions conti- 
nually, for the good of all men, and to the glory of the 
sovereign Lord and Saviour. But, in process of time, 
the Theocracy was greatly neglected, - — the Democracy 
oppressed and almost annihilated by the Aristocracy, — 
and the Aristocracy itself converted, first into an ambi- 
tious Oligarchy, and lastly into a tyrannical Despotism. 

A real, living Unity, and a well regulated Liberty, 
characterised the early constitution of the Church. But 
liberty was afterwards sacrificed to unity ; and this unity 
itself degenerated into a merely external, forced, and dead 
Union, — which became subservient to the purposes of Op- 
pression, and to the growth of the Hierarchy. 

In tracing the history of the changes which took place 
in the government and institutions of the Church, two 
particulars especially deserve to be borne in mind. First, 
That the immoderate claims, aggression, and undue ex- 
altation of the Hierarchy, are not always to be attributed 
to ambition or evil design on the part of the clergy. Much 
allowance is to be made for indiscreet zeal, errors in 
judgment, and the circumstances of the times. Secondly, 
That the evils which were introduced into the system, 
were wonderfully overruled by the Saviour's Providence 
for the ultimate good of the Church. The fictitious claims 
of the clergy in general, and the lordly pretensions of 
bishops, — the mistakes of weak men and the designs 
of the ambitious, — the overcharged ceremonial, — the 
growth of superstition, — and the general degeneracy and 
secularisation of the Christian body, were made subservient 
to its preservation and establishment; — and eventually, 
we hope, to its complete and most beneficial development, 
— its universal efficiency in promoting 

Glory to God in the highest, 
and on Earth Peace, good will towards men. 



Period.) to the first general council. 15 

Primitive Christian Worship. 
Frequent assemblies by day and night. Here the 
Holy Scriptures, and other books tending to religious 
edification, were read, — upon which the bishop or pres- 
byter delivered a discourse, with practical application. 
Then all stood up, and prayed — for themselves, the bre- 
thren, and the world at large. Psalms and hymns were 
sung. The Lord's Supper was celebrated, together with 
the feast of charity, and the kiss of charity or peace was 
exchanged ; and mutual engagements to a life of holiness 
and virtue were made. — The death and resurrection of 
the Lord Jesus Christ were commemorated in annual 
festivals at the season of the passover. The first day of 
the week (the Lord's day) was regarded as holy, in re- 
membrance of Christ's resurrection : and the Jewish 
Sabbath also was observed by many. 

About a.d. 100, f Clement of Rome. 



Jealous inquiry after the descendants of David in 
Judaea. 

or 107. Symeon, Bishop of Jerusalem, put to death. 

Several parties at Jerusalem after the death of Symeon, 
probably more or less infected with Gnostic errors. 
Thebuthis. Elcesaites. 

Nicolaitans, Gnostics who did not refuse to join in the 
heathen sacrifices, when required to do so. 

Trajan sets out for Parthia; stops at Antioch. 

(al. 116.) Ignatius put to death. Persecution under 
Trajan (Third). 

Seven Epistles of Ignatius, written from Smyrna to the 
Ephesians, Trallians, Magnesians, Romans, and from 
Troas to the Smyrnaeans, Philadelphians, and Polycarp. 

Other Epistles were afterwards ascribed to Ignatius, 
which are now deservedly rejected as spurious. The 
seven genuine epistles appear to have suffered consider- 
able interpolations. 



16 FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH (First 

110 Pliny goes to Bithynia as Propraetor. 

111 Trajan returns to Rome. 
Persecution in Bithynia under Pliny. 

Trajan the first Emperor who enacted penal laws 
against the Christians. 



Epistles of Pliny to Trajan and Trajan to Pliny con- 
cerning the Christians. 



It soon became usual with the Christians to fast on 
certain days, namely, on Wednesdays and Fridays in 
every week ; and annually, before the Paschal festival. 
At first, this latter fast continued for the space of forty 
hours; but it was afterwards extended to forty days. — 
The, duration of fasts, and the mode of observing them, 
varied in different places. 



114 Insurrection of the Jews in Egypt and Cyrene. 

Probably a persecution arose in Palestine, as a conse- 
quence of the turbulence of the Jews. 

liy Adrian, Emperor. 

Troubles at Rome ; — perhaps no general persecution. 

But this reign is generally considered as the period of 

the 

Fourth Persecution. 

Persecutions in the Roman empire proceeded partly 
from the magistrates, partly from the people, partly from 
individuals. — The magistrates were sometimes induced to 
persecute, because an adherence to a c religio illicita,' an 
unlicensed or unlawful religion, with a refusal to join in the 
ceremonies of the state-religion, and to pay the customary 
tribute of respect to the person of the emperor, seemed 
to indicate disaffection to the government and constitu- 
tion; and the despotic government was jealous and suspi- 
cious. — The people were excited against the Christians by 
means of false charges of impiety and inhuman conduct; 
and their prejudices led them to ascribe public calamities 
to the presence of Christians in the country. — Individuals 



Period,) to the first general council. 17 

were often personally interested in maintaining the ex- 
isting idolatry and worship. 



Aquila translates the Jewish Scriptures into Greek. 
Papias fl. 



Adrian at Alexandria. 
Martyrdom of Symphorosa and her sons. 
Adrian at Athens. 
Persecution at Athens ; where Christianity, which had 
languished, revives under Quadratus. 



The Apologies of Quadratus and Aristides (now lost) 
were presented to Adrian, about this time, or somewhat 
later. 

A forgery, entitled the Epistle of Barnabas, was com- 
posed probably at the beginning of this century. 

(Hermes Trismegistus is a forgery of this date, or a 
little later.) 

Basilides, of Syria, founds a Judaico-Gnostic School at 
Alexandria ; which was continued by his son Isidorus. 
His system combined the doctrines of Emanation and 
Dualism. 

Saturninus, of Antioch in Syria, founds there an Anti- 
Jewish Gnostic sect. 

Adrian returns to Rome. He afterwards visited various 
parts of the empire. 

Adrian's letter to Minucius Fundanus, proconsul of 
Asia Minor, favourable to the Christians, inasmuch as it 
ordered the punishment of any who should accuse them 
falsely; but it provided also that "obstinacy" on their 
part, i. e. a perseverance in their religion after conviction, 
should be punished. 

(Report of iElius Lampridius (4th century), that 
Adrian would have erected a temple to Christ at Rome, 
had he not been dissuaded by the priests, probably with- 
out foundation. He had a great contempt for all " sacra 
peregrina") 



18 FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH {First 

The Christians now form a body entirely distinct from 
the Jews. 

Fraternal communion of Christian churches, in different 
countries, with each other. 

Christians numerous at Alexandria. 



1^9 Adrian mentions the Christians in a letter to Servianus 

the consul ; he displays great ignorance of their tenets and 
religion. 



Age of Scriptural Doctrine, simple Worship, 
pure Morals, and Martyrdom. 



Christian Doctrine. 
The main articles of Christian faith, as delivered by 
Christ and his Apostles, were maintained by the Church 
from the beginning, and have been confessed in all ages, 
notwithstanding the various controversies and minor dif- 
ferences which have arisen. This original and prevalent 
system of belief may be described in the words of Irenaeus, 
a writer of this (second) century: — " The Church, though 
it be dispersed over all the world, from one end of the 
earth to the other, has received from the Apostles and 
their disciples the belief in one God, the Father Almighty, 
Maker of heaven and earth, the sea, and all things in 
them ; and in one Christ Jesus, the Son of God, who was 
incarnate for our salvation ; and in the Holy Ghost, who 
preached by the prophets the dispensations of God, and 
the advent, nativity of a Virgin, passion, resurrection from 
the dead, and bodily ascension into heaven of the flesh of 
his beloved Son Christ Jesus our Lord, and his coming 
again from heaven, in the glory of the Father, to restore 
all things, and raise the flesh of all mankind ; that, ac- 
cording to the will of the invisible Father, every knee 
should bow, of things in heaven, and things in the earth, 
and things under the earth, to Jesus Christ, our Lord, and 
God, and Saviour, and King; and that every tongue 
should confess to him ; and that he may exercise just 
judgment upon all, and may send spiritual wickednesses, 



Period.) to the first general council. 19 

and the transgressing and apostate angels, with all un- 
godly, unrighteous, lawless, and blaspheming men, into 
everlasting fire ; but, having granted life to all righteous 
and holy men, that keep his commandments, and per- 
severe in his love, some from the beginning, others after 
repentance, on them he may bestow the gift of immor- 
tality, and invest them with eternal glory." 

All churches receiving Holy Scripture as the sole 
rule of faith, or even (erroneously) as only part of the 
rule, have agreed in confessing these primary doctrines of 
Christian truth. The corruptions of doctrine which have 
taken place from time to time within those churches, have 
consisted in unwarranted additions to these truths, or in 
undue refinement upon some or all of them, tending more 
or less to error. Variations and defects have arisen as a 
consequence of such corruptions. But we may trace 
substantial agreement in essential points of doctrine, even 
under all additions, and amidst all diversities. The greatest 
amount of error in faith has been occasioned by the un- 
warranted adoption of tradition as a concurrent rule 
of faith. The absolute suspension of faith, or disavowal 
of primary and elemental truths, by societies bearing the 
Christian name, was reserved for modern times. In some 
countries, Scripture did in fact, for a season, cease to be re- 
garded as even part of the rule of faith, and its place was 
usurped by the dictates of false philosophy and rationalism. 



Early Corruptions of Christianity. 

In the earliest times the Gospel was corrupted, and sects 
were formed among Christians, partly in consequence of 
attempts to incorporate preconceived notions and an- 
cient speculations into the Christian system, and partly 
by reason of the common infirmities and aberrations of 
the human mind. These causes, and their results, have 
been classified under four heads : — 

1. An attempt to amalgamate Christianity with a dead 
and formal Judaism ; whence the Judaizing sects (Ebio- 
nites, Nazarenes). 

c 2 



20 FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH (First 

2. An attempt to engraft the Oriental philosophy upon 
the Gospel, and to construct a Theosophic system upon the 
basis of Christian doctrine; hence the Oriental Theosophic 
sects (Gnostics, Manichees). 

3. The incorporation of a superstitious system of will- 
worship and asceticism; hence the Superstitious and 
Ascetic sects and institutions (Montanists). 

4. An endeavour to bring down the doctrines of reve- 
lation to the level of finite human understanding, weak- 
ened as it is by sin ; hence the Rationalistic sects (Anti- 
trinitarians). 

130 About this time The Perpetual Edict was issued, which 

enacted that all cities and towns throughout the empire 
should follow the laws and customs of Rome, instead of 
their own local and annual regulations. It was probably 
adopted by enemies of the Gospel as a means of harassing 
the Christians. 



132 ( a l. 128.) Revolt of the Jews under Barcochebas. 

(The Jewish Christians refused to join Barcochebas ; 
but they suffered greatly during the war from persecution 
by the Jews.) 

Justin Martyr leaves Palestine, having become a con- 
vert to Christianity about this time. 



135 End of the Jewish War. 

Jews forbidden to approach Jerusalem, except once a 
year. 

(Jerusalem is now called iElia Capitolina. Perhaps the 
name had been given a few years before. It is certain 
that the city was rebuilt, and the name changed, during 
the reign of Adrian.) 



Marcus, first Gentile bishop of Jerusalem. 
N.B. The prohibition of settling at iElia did not 
extend to Christians. Eusebius says, that the church of 
that city was now composed entirely of Gentiles. 



Period.) to the first general council. 21 

Interpolation of the Sibylline books may be referred to 
this date, or somewhat later. It appears from the writings 
of Justin, that the spurious oracles were now generally- 
regarded as genuine and inspired. 

Antoninus Pius, Emperor. 

Persecution at Rome. Telesphorus, Bishop of Rome, 
put to death. Hyginus now becomes bishop of Rome, 
according to Eusebius and Tertullian; but some place 
him as early as 1*22 or 118. 

The sufferings of Christians during this reign were not 
countenanced by the emperor himself, who, on some 
occasions, even wrote letters in their favour. But Christ- 
ians were exposed to the effects of private malice and 
popular violence. 

Gentile converts, during this period, were more nu- 
merous and more faithful than those from among the Jews 
and Samaritans (Justin Martyr). 



Correspondence kept up between different churches. 
Letters of communion and recommendation. 



Celsus writes against the Christian religion about this 
time. 

Ophites^ in Egypt, an Anti-Jewish Gnostic sect, without 
admixture of Christian doctrine. — Continued until the 
sixth century. — To these the Sethites and Cainites bore 
great resemblance. 

Valentinus, a native of Egypt, goes from Alexandria to 
Rome, where he founds a Judaico- Gnostic school or sect. 
To this sect belonged Heracleon of Alexandria, Ptolemy, 
Marcus of Palestine, Bardesanes of Edessa. 

An apocryphal book, entitled " The Shepherd," is 
supposed by some critics to have been composed about 
this time by Hermas, brother of Pius, Bishop of Rome. 

Before 150. Carjjocrates, at Alexandria, founds a sect 
of Anti- Jewish (Eclectic Antinomian) Gnostics. This 
sect was small ; but it continued until the sixth century. 

c 3 



22 FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH (First 



148 

150 



Justin Martyr presents his first Apology to Antoninus. 
Gnosticism at its height. 



Persecution in various parts of the world. 

Gradual cessation of miracles in the Church during 
this century. 

Flourishing period of the Church of Athens. 

The greater part of the Books of the New Testament 
were now received as the rule of faith by all churches. 
During this century, great pains were taken in adjusting 
the lists or canons of sacred writings ; and translations 
were made, especially into Syriac and Latin. 

A creed or confession of faith, from the very earliest ages, 
was committed to memory and repeated by candidates for 
baptism. This creed was substantially the same in all the 
churches, but with slight variations, 
155 About this time, some Christians of Asia Minor left 

their own country and settled in Gaul, where Christianity 
had already been planted. Intercourse was afterwards 
kept up between the Churches of Vienne and Lyons, and 
those of Asia. 

The epistles or decretals, purporting to have been 
written by the bishops of Rome during this century, are 
forgeries of a later date. 

Apocryphal gospels, and other works of that kind, many 
of which were probably forged by the Gnostics, were cir- 
culated during this century. 

Controversies and divisions relating to constitution and 
discipline prevailed chiefly in the West ; those which had 
reference to doctrine or theory existed principally in the 
East. 

Papias, Bishop of Hierapolis, is said to have been the 
first who taught the doctrine of a Millenium ; ?'. e. that after 
a first resurrection of the just, they will reign with Christ 
upon earth for a thousand years, before the final judg- 
ment. 



Period.) to the first general council. 23 

Justin Martyr believed in a Millenium ; but he tells 
us that he differed herein from the belief of many good 
Christians of his day. 

N.B. The Gnostics expected a Millenium, and so did 
the Montanists. Before the end of the third century, 
the Millenarians were generally regarded as in error. 

1^7 (all 68.) Rise of the Montanists, or Cataphrygians ; 

so called from Montamis, native of Ardaban, a village 
of Mysia, near the borders of Phrygia. 

Montanus pretended to be the Paraclete promised by 
Christ, commissioned to carry to perfection the code of 
Christian morals, and to restore the purity of the Christian 
life and the discipline of the Church, so far as it had 
decayed. Montanus was soon joined by other fanatics, 
who, like himself, pretended to the gift of prophecy, and 
attempted to confirm his mission. The Montanists did 
not oppose or falsify any of the fundamental articles of 
the Christian faith (except that some of them may perhaps 
have declined into Sabellian error) ; but they carried the 
principles of mortification and laws of discipline to a great 
length : they imposed severe fasts, forbad a second mar- 
riage, set a high value upon celibacy and martyrdom, 
visited all grievous crimes with perpetual excommunica- 
tion, and taught a sovereign contempt of earthly goods. 
They held the near approach of the end of the world, 
and of the commencement of the millenial reign of Christ 
on earth. 

Montanists continued in the Church under various 
names (Cataphrygians, &c), until the sixth century. 

Edict of Antoninus Pius, confirming that of Adrian, — 
that no one should be prosecuted merely as a Christian, 
without being charged with some offence. 

158 Polycarp visits Rome. Difference of opinion between 

Polycarp and Anicetus respecting the time of celebrating 
Easter ; the former advocating the practice and opinions 
of the Jewish and other Asiatic Christians, the latter de- 
fending the usage of the Western Churches. 

c 4 



24 FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH (First 

N.B. Asiatic Christians celebrated the Passover on the 
night of the fourteenth of Nisan ; they commemorated the 
crucifixion on the following day (ttuo-^ol <rTa.vpuxnpov) ; and 
on the third day after the} celebrated the resurrection 
{Ttcwyjx avuo-Taa-ipov). Western Christians did not cele- 
brate the Passover at all ; but, on the Lord's day next 
after the full moon in Nisan, they celebrated the resur- 
rection, holding a communion in the morning ; and they 
set apart the foregoing Friday in commemoration of the 
crucifixion. 



Justin's Dialogue with Trypho. 
Tatian's Diatessaron. 



161 Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (the Philosopher), 

Emperor. 
Crescens, a Cynic philosopher, active in opposition to 
Christianity. 

Marcus Antoninus was a systematic and diligent perse- 
cutor of the Christians, carrying into effect the law with 
great rigour, and authorising the search after suspected 
persons. But Christians were now made eligible to public 
offices, under certain moderate restrictions. 
1 63 Death of Papias, Bishop of Hierapolis. 

Period of the (so called) 
Fifth Persecution. 

Second Apology of Justin Martyr, probably between 
161 and 165. 

Epistles of Dionysius, Bishop of Corinth. 

Marcella, a female teacher of Gnosticism, at Rome. 



164 About this time Provincial Councils were first held. 

This took place in Asia, on occasion of the Montanist 
controversies. 



Evidence of liberal contributions for the relief of dis- 
tressed Christians about this time. 



165 Justin Martyr put to death. Death of Peregrinus. 



Period.) to the first general council. 25 

Tatian, a disciple of Justin, returns to the East. Having 
embraced the errors of Valentinus and Marcion, he 
founds the sect of the Encratites ( Tatian ists, Hydro- 
paras tatse). Some regard his followers as an An ti- Jewish 
Gnostic sect* 

Bardesanes of Edessa, fL He wrote in defence of 
Christianity, but afterwards was misled by the Oriental 
philosophy, and held some of the opinions of the Valen- 
tinians. He is regarded as a forerunner of Manicheism. 

The emperors celebrate their triumph for the Parthian 
conquests. 

(al. 147. 169. 175.) Martyrdom of Polycarp, Bishop 
of Smyrna, and others. 

Letter of the Church of Smyrna, describing the mar- 
tyrdom of Polycarp. 

Commemoration of Martyrs. 
At this period it was usual with Christians to com- 
memorate Martyrs by meeting at their graves on the 
anniversaries of their martyrdom, and there celebrating 
divine worship, with the Lord's supper, as on the Lord's 
day, reading the acts of the Martyr, and making 
collections for the poor. But no invocation of Martyrs, 
or worship of relics, was yet introduced. There is no 
evidence that any religious veneration was paid to relics 
during the second century. 

Controversies concerning the obligation of the Mosaic 
law continue. 

A pestilence rages during several years. 

The emperors leave Rome to make war against the 
Marcomanni. Death of Verus. M. Aurelius returns to 
Rome. 

M. Aurelius sets out to prosecute the war in Germany. 

Melito, Bishop of Sardis ; his Apology and Canon of 
the Old Testament. 



26 



FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH (First 

Apologies of Miltiades and Claudius Apollinaris. 
Treatise of Hermias against the heathen philosophers. 
Apologetic Age. 



Severus, a disciple of Tatian, at the head of a sect. — 
Florinus, Blastus, followers, to a certain extent, of Valen- 
tinus. 

174 Victory over the Quadi. Story of the Thundering 
Legion. 

175 Insurrection of Avidius Cassius in Syria. Tertullian 
says that no Christian joined his party. 

Athenagoras, said to have been head of the Catechetical 
School at Alexandria. 

Bardesanes writes against Marcion. His son, Harmo- 
nius, a writer of Syrian hymns. 

Christian writers and Alexandrian Jews assert that 
Plato borrowed his philosophy from Moses. 
Hegesippus writes his history. 

176 "j" Tatian. Dionysius of Corinth. 
Apology of Athenagoras. 

Evidence of the existence of churches, each with regular 
establishment of bishop and presbyter, at Vienne and 
Lyons. Irenceus, Bishop of Lyons. Persecution at Vienne 
and Lyons; Pothinus died in prison. 

Evidence of the practice of Infant Baptism at this period. 

M. Aurelius at Rome. 
178 The emperor and his son Commodus set out for a second 

war with the Marcomanni. 

Lucius, a British prince, is said to have sent to Eleu- 
therus, Bishop of Rome at this time, for instruction in the 
Gospel. Story quite unfounded. 

First traces of Christian Ascetics. 
Celibacy was now regarded as a heresy. 

(During the reign of Aurelius, Lucian, Apuleius, Galen, 
Pausanias, Polysenus, Gellius, Artemidorus, Sextus Em- 
piricus, fl.). 

Theophilus writes his work to Autolycus. 
Theodotion translates the Old Testament into Greek. 



Period.) to the first general council. 27 

(Rabbi Judah, of Tiberias, compiles the Mishna, or first 
part of the Talmud. Later dates are assigned by some 
writers.) 

Commodus, Emperor. 



Pantsenus, head of the Catechetical School at Alex- 
andria. 

Doctrine of the Trinity in Unity. The Christian doc- 
trine of the Trinity in Unity was taught by the earliest 
writers from the New Testament, although the Platonic 
word Tpiu$ was first used by Theophilus of Antioch 
(Justin Martyr, Athenagoras, Tatian). Irenseus speaks 
obscurely concerning the connection, or mutual relation, 
of the three persons of the divine nature ; but he expressly 
declares that a belief in the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit 
was universally adopted by the Church from the beginning. 

The Unity of God is maintained apologetically against 
Polytheists, and against such Monotheists as contended 
that the doctrine of three persons in one essence involves 
the false doctrine of a plurality of Gods ; and polemically 
against the dualism of the Gnostics and Manichees. 

Under Commodus, the persecutions of Christians were 
only partial. The emperor was careless of the honour of 
the national religion ; and his subjects, being compelled 
to provide for their own safety, had few opportunities of 
harassing their neighbours. 



Christians are now divided into two classes, the Faith- 
ful and Catechumens ; probably in imitation of the heathen 
system of initiation, &c, or rather as a necessary pre- 
caution for the purity of morals, suggested by the circum- 
stances of the Church. 



Marcia, the mistress of Commodus, favours the Christ- 
ians. 

The Church enjoys peace; but individual Christians 
occasionally suffer cruel treatment. 

Apollonius put to death, and with him his slave, who 
had acted as informer. 



28 



188 



192i 
193 \ 



193 



FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH (First 

About this time Irenagus writes his work Against Here- 
sies. 

Clement, head of the Catechetical School at Alex- 
andria. 

The Gospel preached in Ethiopia by Pantaenus. 



Gradual change in the Constitution of the Church ; h 
creasing ascendancy of the Hierarchical Aristocracy. 

Increased number of Church Officers. 



Nicolaitans, and other Anti-Jewish and Antinomian 
sects. 

Montanism 

had now greatly disturbed the peace of the Church in 
various parts of the world. 



Christian writers now begin to attack the errors of 
Paganism, as well as to defend the Gospel. 



Helvius Pertinax; then Didius Julianus ; finally, 
Septimius Severus, Emperors. 

Christians did not suffer much persecution during the 
first six years of Severus. 



Symmachus translates the Old Testament into Greek. 
The earliest commentators upon Scripture appear to 
have been Pantaenus and Clement of Alexandria. 



Theodotians. Artemonites. 
Theodotus, at Rome, maintains the doctrine of the 
simple humanity of Christ, but admits his miraculous 
conception. His opinions adopted by Artemon or Arte- 
mas. A small remnant of this sect existed in the third 
century. No person before Theodotus had taught that 
Christ was a mere man. 

Patripassians* Monarchians. 
Praxeas, of Asia Minor, denies the distinction of per- 
sons in the Godhead, teaching that the Son and Holy 
Ghost are only modes or operations of the Divine Being. 



Period.) to the first general council. 29 

Byzantium taken. 

Victor excommunicates Theodotus at Rome. 

Councils in Asia Minor and Palestine concerning the 
Paschal controversy. (The earliest councils were popu- 
lar deliberative assemblies, consisting of delegates elected 
and sent as representatives of independent, but federated, 
churches.) 

Early aggression of the Church of Rome. 
Victor excommunicates the Churches of Asia Minor. 
Reconciliation effected by Irenasus, who, with other 
bishops, refused to follow the example of Rome. Some 
of these bishops sharply rebuked Victor. 



The letter of Irenseus to Victor shows that at this time 
the fast before Easter lasted in some countries one day ; 
in others forty hours, and in others two days or more. 
The same difference is mentioned by Socrates in the 
fifth century. 

Julius Cassian, Encratite. 



The Church of Carthage rises into eminence. Bishops 
succeed to their office by seniority. 



Tertullian rises into notice at Carthage. 
Maximus, on Evil ; Heraclitus, on the Apostles ; Can- 
didus and Apion, on the Six Days of Creation ; Sextus, on 
the Resurrection ; Judas, on the Seventy Weeks of Daniel, 
who describes Severus as Antichrist. 

(al. 205.) Tertullian's Apology. 
During this century many works were written by 
Gnostics, but they have all perished. 



Propagation of the Gospel. 
Europe. 
Christians had now been planted in Italy, Spain, Gaul, 
and Britain; there were also churches in Thrace and 



TURY. 



30 FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH (First 

EndofI parts of Scythia, and in parts of Germany, Dacia, and 

THE o 

Second Sarmatia. 
Cen- Africa. 

Churches had been founded at Alexandria and Car- 
thage; there were settlements of Christians along the 
whole northern coast ; Christianity had been preached in 
Ethiopia. 

Asia. 
The Gospel had been preached in Arabia, Persia, and 
Bactria. Churches were nourishing in Asia Minor, Pa- 
lestine, and Mesopotamia. 



The writings of the Fathers of this century contain, 
for the most part, true scriptural doctrine concerning, — 
the rule of faith ; the Holy Trinity ; the universality of 
redemption; the sacrifice of Christ ; justification; faith; 
the sacraments. 

But various important errors are found in the works of 
Justin Martyr, Irenseus, Clement of Alexandria, and Ter- 
tullian. Great injury was done to Christian doctrine by 
treating it as a matter of philosophy and speculation, and 
especially by mixing up with it some tenets of the new 
Platonists. 

Christianity had now been embraced by some profes- 
sors of science and philosophy. The doctrines of the 
Gospel begin to be corrupted by means of idle specula- 
tions, and the undue application of human learning. 

The Alexandrians undertook to separate the true from 
the false in the Gnostic system ; but they did not escape 
the danger of adopting some of the false as true. 

The system of an allegorical interpretation of Scripture 
begins to prevail at Alexandria. 

Proofs of substantial agreement between the principal 
churches (e. g. those of Alexandria, Carthage, Lyons), 
respecting Christian doctrine and the canon of Scripture, 
but not without circumstantial variations in some customs 
and modes of expression. We find traces of creeds or con- 
fessions of faith in the works of Irenaeus and Tertullian. 



Cen- 
tury. 



Period.) to the first general council. 31 

End of Divine Worship 

THE 

S fv^ ND was now con ducted in nearly the same way as hitherto. 
It consisted of — 

The reading of Scripture and some uninspired reli- 
gious writings. 

Preaching (chiefly expository and popular). 

Prayer (standing on festivals ; kneeling on fast-days ; 
turning the face towards the East; response, Amen). 

Psalmody (hymns sometimes composed for the use of 
congregations). 

Forms of public prayer were probably not unknown 
during this age, at least in some places. 

No tithes or first-fruits paid for the maintenance of 
ministers of religion during this century. Voluntary 
offerings made for various purposes. 



Christian presbyters begin to be generally regarded as 
priests in the Jewish sense of the term. 

Lay presbyters have still some influence in the African 
churches. 



Institutions, Ceremonies, 8fc. 

The Lord's Day universally observed. The Jewish 
Sabbath partially. Annual festivals of Easter and Whit- 
suntide. Annual fast, on the day of the crucifixion. 
Anniversaries of Martyrs. 

Christian teachers sometimes wore the mantle, or pe- 
culiar dress, of philosophers. 



At this period, the professors of Christianity were nu- 
merous, and many of them were wealthy. The tone of 
morality in the Church was lowered. 



Severus visits Alexandria. 
General persecution (commonly called The Sixth) under 
Severus, who issued an edict about this time, prohibiting 
his subjects from embracing the Jewish or Christian 



religion. 



32 FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH (First 

%0Q Leonides, father of Origen, put to death. 

Clement quits Alexandria. 
"f Irenaeus. Symmachus. 

203 Persecution violent at Alexandria and Carthage. 



Tertullian joins the Montanists. 

Hermogenes, probably at Carthage, propagates Dualistic 
doctrines, but opposes the Emanation system of the 
Gnostics. 

Praxeas, excluded from communion by Zephyrinus, 
retracts his errors, and is restored. He afterwards re- 
lapsed. 

The Alogi, an obscure sect of Antitrinitarians. 

Natalius, a Theodotian bishop, retracts his errors, and 
is restored to communion. 



Severus returns to Rome. 
204 Secular games celebrated at Rome. 

Questions relating to the Restoration of Lapsed Peni- 
tents were agitated early in this century, which led to a 
long and painful controversy. 



The assembling of Provincial Councils, in which the 
bishop of the chief city of the province presided, led to 
the development of a rising hierarchical system — to 
the assumption of increased power on part of ministers in 
general, — and to the establishment of separate interests 
in their favour. Hitherto we have read chiefly of the 
acts and sufferings of the church; henceforward history 
is especially employed in describing the acts, errors, and 
disputes of the clergy. 

1 . A distinction was now established between the clergy 
and the laity. 

2. The clergy consisted of bishops, presbyters, and 
deacons. The bishops were less restrained by their pres- 
byteries than formerly. 

3. The larger and apostolical churches began to claim 



Period.) to the first general council. 33 

precedence and honour, but without infringing upon the 
liberties of others. 

4. The doctrine of "the Catholic Church," as one 
body, begins to prevail. 



# Some suppose that Christianity was about this time 
introduced into Britain from Gaul ; but it appears that 
it had already been widely disseminated there. (Tertull. 
Adv. Jud. c. vii.) 

The word Sacramentum was now applied to baptism, 
the Lord's supper, the Holy Scriptures, and various reli- 
gious ceremonies. 

(Tertullian's Theological Terminology; afterwards 
adopted by Cyprian, and made current in the Western 
Churches.) 



Monthly charitable contributions were usual in the 
churches at this period. 



Origen teaches at Alexandria ; soon after made head 
of the Catechetical School. 

Ammonius Saccas, at Alexandria, founder of the Ec* 
lectic Philosophy, or school of Later Platonists. 
His first attempt was to bring the Platonic and Aristote- 
lian systems into agreement. He then proceeded to 
blend this new compound with Christianity. He framed 
his system in the interval between 200 and 235 He is 
said to have abandoned the Christian faith at last. 



Tertullian writes against Marcion. 
Minucius Felix writes his Octavius. 



Severus and his sons go into Britain. 
Severus dies at York. Caracalla and Geta, joint 
emperors for a time. Geta killed by his brother. 

Caracalla, Emperor. 
Christians generally enjoyed toleration during this 



34 FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH (First 

reign; but they were exposed to persecution in some 
places. 

213 Origen goes to Rome; and returns to Alexandria. 

21 4 Origen called into Arabia. 



Alexander, Bishop of Jerusalem, for some time in con- 
junction with Narcissus, restored. First instance on 
record of two persons together holding the same see, 
which was afterwards forbidden by councils. 

Alexander had been Bishop of Flavias in Cappadocia ; 
first instance of translation. 
215 Council at Carthage, under Agrippinus, concerning 

baptism administered by heretics. 

Origen goes to Caesarea in Palestine. 

Demetrius, Bishop of Alexandria, expostulates with 
Theoctistus, Bishop of Caesarea in Palestine, for allowing 
Origen, who was a layman, to read the Scriptures and 
deliver discourses in the church. Theoctistus, in reply, 
quoted precedents in favour of such a practice ; and he 
was supported by Alexander, Bishop of Jerusalem. De- 
metrius, however, commanded Origen to return to 
Alexandria. 

Massacre at Alexandria by Caracalla. 



A question arises about this time respecting the valid- 
ity of baptism administered by reputed heretics. 

Exaggerated statements respecting the efficacy of the 
sacraments of baptism and the Lord's supper gain cur- 
rency, attended with superstitious veneration for those 
rites, and abuses. 

Baptism, in the second Century, and beginning of the third. 

1. Was now more generally administered to infants. 

2. Some limitations had been introduced respecting 
the ministering of baptism, and the times of administra- 
tion (Easter and Whitsuntide). 

3. Ceremonies were added to the rite. Renunciation 
of the devil and his pomps. 



Period.) to the first general council. 35 

4. Solemn confession of faith repeated. 

5. Use of the sign of the cross. 

6. Sponsors. 

7. Anointing with oil. 

8. Use of milk and honey. 

The Lord's Supper, during the same period. 

1. Received several new names and appellations. 

2. Elements consecrated by none but bishops, 

3. And distributed by deacons. 

4. Sometimes conveyed to persons absent from public 
worship. 

5. Occasionally, perhaps, administered to infants. 

6. Still administered in both kinds. 

7. Bread leavened; wine mixed with water. 

Prayers for the Dead. 
Feasts of charity still celebrated ; but not always in 
connexion with the Lord's supper. 



The following are the principal doctrines which were 
brought prominently forward during the latter half of the 
second century and the beginning of the third, occa- 
sioned by the assertions and pretensions of various sects 
and parties : — 

1. Against the Gnostics ; the unity of God ; the good- 
ness of the Creator ; the identity of the origin of the Old 
and New Testaments ; the reality of the life and suffer- 
ings of Jesus Christ upon earth. 

2. Against the Montanists and Novatians ; Christian 
liberty ; necessity of infant baptism ; needlessness of re- 
baptizing the lapsed. 

3. Against the Semi-Gnostics, Alogi, and Sabellians ; 
the proper deity and personality of the Logos (without 
denning any thing concerning the nature of the Holy 
Spirit). 

4. Against the Marcionites ; the canonicity of certain 

parts of the New Testament (but without finally fixing 

the canon). 

d 2 



3® FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH (First 

(Holy Scripture was recognised as the source of reli- 
gious doctrine ; but with a certain respect to Tradition, 
as a concurrent witness to the teaching of the Apostles.) 

Various controversies were agitated during this cen- 
tury. Some old disputes continue, and others take rise. 

The first system of Christian doctrine compiled by 
Origen (De Principiis). 



Disputes concerning Montanism now run high. The 
Montanists divide into two parties ; one, under iEschines, 
maintaining opinions resembling those of Praxeas and 
Sabellius ; the other, under Proculus, retaining more scrip- 
tural views of the doctrine of the Holy Trinity. 



217 Macrinus, Emperor. 



gl8 ( C1Y -) t Clement of Alexandria. Tertullian. 

Heliogabalus, Emperor. 
Heliogabalus attempted to establish the worship of the 
Sun throughout the empire ; but he offered no molestation 
to the Christians in particular. 



During the early part of this century, Philostratus 
wrote the life of Apollonius of Tyana, whose impostures 
were placed in competition with the divine miracles of 
our Saviour. 



220 Origen, head of the Catechetical School at Alexandria. 

(This is the latest date assigned for the compilation of 
the Mishna by Rabbi Judah.) 

t Minucius Felix, 
Hippolytus, fl. 

°M C Z Alexander Severus, Emperor. 

Alexander tolerates, or even favours, the Christians ; 
but they appear to have been exposed to partial sufferings. 
The celebrated Ulpian, in particular, who was the em- 
peror's secretary, and commander of the praetorian guards, 
was their enemy. 



Period.) to the first general council. 37 

Christianity is not yet a " religio licita," or religion 
tolerated and recognised by the State. 



With this year the Canon Paschalis of Hippolytus 
begins. 

Fasting was now in great repute, but still with due 
allowance for Christian liberty. The observance becomes 
more and more systematised. Various kinds of fasts, with 
corresponding names. 

The kiss of charity retained. The custom of signing 
with the sign of the cross, still without superstition. 

First traces of churches, or distinct buildings appro- 
priated to the purpose of Christian worship. Several 
were erected about this time. 

Increased strictness of discipline. 



Martyrdom of Martina at Rome. 



Ammonius Saccas pretends that Christians borrowed 
and corrupted the doctrines of Plato ; in fact, that the 
Gospel is a corruption of Platonism. 

"Christians fell into the snare of proving an agree- 
ment between Platonism and the Gospel. Still it must 
be remembered, that the Platonists, and not the Christians, 
perverted the doctrines of their founders. Plato was 
made to deliver opinions which he never held; and 
Christian writers explained the mysteries of their religion 
in the language of Plato. It is not improbable that these 
speculations led the way to the Sabellian and Arian here- 
sies." (Burton, Lectures on Eccles. Hist. lect. xxx.) 

Origen ordained presbyter in Palestine by Theoctistus, 
Bishop of Caesarea, and Alexander, Bishop of Jerusalem. 
Origen returns to Alexandria. 



Demetrius holds a council at Alexandria against 
Origen. 

d 3 



38 FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH (First 

Noetus, of Smyrna, denies the distinction of persons in 
the Godhead. 

231 By the Council of Iconium, baptism administered by 

heretics (Montanists) is declared invalid. 



Christian Churches (or Congregations) now existed in every 
province and city of the Roman Empire. 

Origen finally leaves Alexandria, and settles at Caesarea 
in Palestine. His Commentaries. 

Heraclas (who had formerly assisted Origen). head of 
the Catechetical School at Alexandria. 
232 Succeeded by Dionysius. 

Eclectic Philosophy gaining ground. 
Plotinus attends the lectures of Ammonius Saccas. 
After the ejection of Origen from Alexandria, Christian 
writers became less fond of using the language and imagery 
of Plato. 

Firmilian, Bishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia, visits 
Origen. Also, Athenodorus and Theodorus from Pontus. 

Opinions of Origen. 
The errors (subsequently) ascribed to Origen relate 
principally to the assertion of inequality between the 
Father and the Son (in which respect he may be re- 
garded as a forerunner of Arius) ; his ambiguous or in- 
adequate expressions concerning the w r ork of redemption 
(for he made but faint and indefinite mention of the 
incarnation, life, and sufferings of Christ, his sacrifice and 
satisfaction, and the forgiveness of sins) ; the mutual 
relation of human power and divine grace (on which point 
he made way for the doctrines of Pelagius) ; and his 
resolute denial of the eternity of future punishments. 
His system of allegorical interpretation of Scripture 
formed also a subject of complaint, 



Montanism makes progress in Asia Minor. 



235 Maximinus, Emperor. 

Partial persecution of Christians, aimed especially at 



Period.) to the first general council. 39 

the heads of the Church (commonly called The Seventh 
Persecution). 



235 

238 



239 



240 



Origen retires to Cappadocia, and begins his Hexapla. 
Athenodorus and Theodorus go to Alexandria. 



Gordian, Emperor. 
Universal toleration and peace to the Church. 



Origen visits Greece a second time; continues his 
Commentaries. 

Origen returns to Caesarea; rejoined by his former 
pupil Theodorus (afterwards called Gregory Thauma- 
turgus). 

Beryllus, Bishop of Bostra, confounds in his doctrine 
the persons of the Holy Trinity. He is convinced of his 
error by Origen. 

(Manes born.) 



The bishops or presidents of the several churches, as such, 
noio possess great and increasing influence ; hut it does not 
appear that authority, independent of their presbyteries, had 
been formally conceded to them. 

Funds collected for charitable purposes, and admi- 
nistered by the bishops, were now considerable. 

It was usual to recite publicly the names of alms- 
i givers or benefactors, at the celebration of the Lord's 
supper. 

Foundation of the doctrine of Purgatory laid. 
Origen taught, in accordance with the views of Plato, 
that the souls of all good men will hereafter (namely, at 
the day of judgment) pass through a purgatorial fire. 



Origen writes against the Elcesaites. 



Gregory Thaumaturgus builds a handsome church at 
Neocaesarea. 

d 4 



40 FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH (First 



Increasing Uniformity in Worship. Multiplication of 
Rites and Ceremonies. 



Origen completes his Hexapla about this time, and 
composes his work against Celsus. 

244 Philip the Arabian, Emperor. 

Philip openly showed favour to the Christians. He is 
said by some to have been himself a convert; but this 
assertion is apparently unfounded. 

Some Christians in Arabia maintained that the soul 
perishes with the body, and that both will be restored 
to life at the resurrection. Origen persuaded them to 
abandon this opinion. 



Some change in the manner of appointing bishops at 
Alexandria appears to have taken place about this time. 



247 Pierius, head of the Catechetical School at Alexandria. 



248 Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage ; his election opposed by 
Novatus. 

By this time, Christianity was extensively established 
in Gaul. 

Christians persecuted at Alexandria by the people. 

Christianity had made great progress during the long 
period of peace since the death of Severus. 

249 Decius, Emperor. 
Persecution (commonly called The Eighth) begins. 

Decius issues an edict, by which Christians are peremp- 
torily required to sacrifice to the gods. Fabianus, Bishop 
of Rome, put to death. 

During the Decian persecution, large numbers of 
Christians apostatised from the faith; many cheerfully 
submitted to sufferings; and not a few displayed an un- 
due and immoderate passion for imprisonment and martyr- 
dom. 



Period.) to the first general council. 41 

Diptyc/is, or Catalogues of Martyrs. 
Catechumenate. Disciplina Arcani. 



Cyprian seeks safety in flight from Carthage. Diony- 
sius escapes from Alexandria. Origen thrown into pri- 
son. Alexander, Bishop of Jerusalem, and Babylas, 
Bishop of Antioch, die in prison. The Christians endure 
great sufferings at Rome, Alexandria, and Carthage ; also 
in Palestine and Asia Minor. 

Church of Rome without a bishop. 

Rise of Monachism. 
Paul the Hermit, of Thebes, and others retire to the 
deserts of Egypt from the Decian persecution. 



t Hippolytus. 

Gallus, Emperor. 

Questions concerning the Restoration of the Lapsed 
( Sacrificati, Thurificati, Libellatici). Novatus and his 
party advocate the more lax system at Carthage, in oppo- 
sition to Cyprian. Novatian and his followers at Rome 
uphold the more severe discipline, in opposition to Cor- 
nelius. 

Schism of Novatus and Felicissimus at Carthage. 
Cyprian returns, holds a council, and settles the question 
of the Lapsed. 

Election of Cornelius, as Bishop of Rome, opposed by 
Novatian. Council at Rome. Novatian condemned, after 
having been consecrated as a rival bishop. 

Synodal letter of the Council of Carthage con- 
tains the following pretensions : — " Placuit nobis, Sancto 
Spiritu suggerente, et Domino per visiones multas et 
manifestas admonente." 

The doctrine of the Unity of the Church supported 
and advocated by Origen. 

Great Pestilence begins. 



42 FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH (First 

Invasion of the Goths. War with Persia begins. 

Persecution renewed by Gallus (Ninth Persecution), 
Cornelius, Bishop of Rome, put to death. 

(Christians numerous at Rome. The churches of that 
city were now served by forty-six Presbyters, seven Dea- 
cons, seven Sub-deacons, and forty-two Assistants, fifty- 
two Exorcists, Readers, and Porters.) 

Q53 Valerian, Emperor. 

Lucius, Bishop of Rome, put to death. Persecution 
ceases after the death of Gallus. 

Valerian's household was full of Christians at the be- 
ginning of his reign. 

Gallic bishops consult the bishops of Rome and Car- 
thage respecting treatment of the Lapsed. 

254 t Origen. 



Marcianus, Bishop of Aries, deposed for Novatianism. 
Basilides and Martialis, Spanish bishops, deposed. Ste- 
phen advocates their restoration; Cyprian opposes it. 

Cyprian strongly insists upon outward unity of the 
Church ; he speaks of St. Peter as the representative of 
this unity ; and says, that the Bishop of Rome is the suc- 
cessor of St. Peter, and that the Church of Rome is 
entitled to precedence, from the importance of the city ; 
but he refuses to acknowledge the superiority of the Bishop 
of Rome over other bishops in point of jurisdiction or 
authority, such as Stephen claims. 



255 Council at Carthage decides against validity of baptism 

by heretics, and asserts the necessity of rebaptizing those 
who had received it. Stephen, of Rome, takes the con- 
trary part. 

Firmilian, Bishop of Cappadocia, speaks of Stephen as 
a schismatic ; as having withdrawn from the unity of the 
Church, in allowing the validity of heretical baptism ; and 
asserts that many things are done at Rome contrary to 
apostolical authority. 

(The Church of Rome stood quite alone in thiscontro- 



Period.) to the first general council. 43 

versy ; but Stephen called his opponents " perverters of 
the truth, and traitors to ecclesiastical unity," threatening 
to exclude them from communion.) 

Another council at Carthage again decides against the 
validity of baptism by heretics, and that lapsed ministers 
should be re-admitted only as laymen. 

Another, in the autumn, against validity of heretics' 
baptism. 

Cyprian strongly asserts the right of every bishop to 
make laws for his own church. 



Commemorations of Martyrs and Confessors, 
celebrated with increased care, and attended with festi- 
vities. 

Penitentiary Presbyters 
were established about this time, but the institution does 
not appear to have become general. The customs of the 
Church respecting excommunication, penance, and absolution, 
begin to be reduced to a system. 

Christians were eminent for their attentions to the 
dying and the dead during the Great Pestilence. 

The council of Carthage enjoins infant baptism. At 
this period it was usual at Carthage to administer the 
Lord's Supper to infants. 



Macrianus uses his influence with the emperor against 
the Christians. 

Persecution under Valerian begins. Stephen, Bishop 
of Rome, put to death. Cyprian banished to Curubis. 
Many Christians sent to the mines. 

Dionysius of Alexandria banished. Sixtus of Rome, 
with his deacon Laurentius, and Cyprian put to death. 



Sabellians. 

Sabellius propagates his doctrines in Egypt. Dionysius 
of Alexandria opposes them. 

" The Sabellians denied the personality of the Son and 
the Holy Ghost. They believed that God the Father 



44 FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH (First 

was himself the Redeemer and Sanetifier of mankind ; 
that the divinity of the Father resided in Jesus Christ, 
who had no separate existence before his appearance upon 
earth ; and that the Son and the Holy Ghost are mere 
modes or operations of the one only God. If we seek for 
a difference between the theory of Sabellius and those 
of his predecessors, we are perhaps to say, that Noetus 
supposed the whole divinity of the Father to be inhe- 
rent in Jesus Christ, whereas Sabellius supposed it to 
be only a part, which was put forth like an emanation, 
and was again absorbed in the Deity. Noetus acknow- 
ledged only one divine Person ; Sabellius divided this one 
divinity into three; but he supposed the Son and the 
Holy Ghost to have no distinct personal existence, except 
when they were put forth for a time by the Father." 
(Burton.) They supposed the emanation (Logos) to 
have been to Christ in place of a human soul. 

Sabellians existed at Rome and Alexandria until the 
fourth century. 



259 Valerian made prisoner by Sapor, king of Persia. 

Gallienus, Emperor. 
Thirty Tyrants. 



Gallienus, by an edict, granted to the Christians 
liberty and protection in the exercise of their religion. 
And thus Christianity became, for the first time, a "religio 
licita" or mode of worship recognised and permitted 
by the State. 



260 Paul of Samosata, Bishop of Antioch. 

261 Macrianus and his two sons put to death. Christians 
free from persecution until the end of the reign. 

Theognostus, head of the Catechetical School at Alex- 
andria. 



Dionysius, Bishop of Alexandria, called upon by 



Period.) to the first general council. 45 

Dionysius, Bishop of Rome, to answer a charge of holding 
unsound doctrine concerning the nature of Christ. In 
the following year the Bishop of Alexandria published 
" A Refutation and Defence." 

Nepos, an Egyptian bishop, writes in favour of the 
doctrine of a Millenium. — Opposed by Dionysius, Bishop 
of Alexandria. 

From this time we find but few writers who maintain 
the Millenarian doctrine. 



Great disturbances at Alexandria, occasioned by the 
rival claims of Gallienus and iEmilianus. 



Porphyry, one of the bitterest enemies of the Gospel, 
at Rome. (N.B. Plotinus and Porphyry asserted that 
the doctrines of Plato and of the Christians respecting 
the Trinity were identical ; and that the Gospel was a 
corruption of P.latonism.) 



The foundations of the Canon Law were laid by the 
Councils of the African Church in the course of this 
Century. 

The present period may be characterised as 

The Age of Imposture, 

Rising Hierarchical Pretensions, 

and 

Incipient Controversy. 



Odenatus of Palmyra acknowledged by Gallienus as 
Emperor of the East. 

First council of Antioch against Paul of Samosata. 



Paul of Samosata 
taught that Jesus was born a mere man ; but that after 
his birth he was invested with the Logos, or Reason of 
God, which Paul supposed to have had no personal pre- 
existence distinct from God himself, but to have been put 
forth by God after the birth of Jesus. He therefore 



46 FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH (First 

denied the proper divinity of Christ, but he did not hold 
that our Saviour was merely a human being. 



2oJ The Pestilence ceases. 

Zenobia, widow of Odenatus, rules over several Eastern 
provinces. 

268 Claudius, Emperor. 

Some say that Claudius persecuted the Christians. 
Porphyry goes to Sicily. 



269 The Council of Antioch, held this year, in a letter 

addressed to Paul, plainly asserts the essential divinity 
of Christ; his eternal pre-existence; his creation of the 
world ; his relation to God as a son, not as a creature ; 
and his miraculous incarnation. The doctrine contained 
in the word "consubstantial" is thus clearly taught, 
although the word itself does not appear. Paul of Samo- 
sata deposed. Domnus, Bishop of Antioch. 



t Firmilian, Bishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia. 
270 j* Gregory Thaumaturgus. 

"f Plotinus. 
Commodian, a Christian poet, fl. 



Aurelian, Emperor. 

Aurelian was unfriendly to Christianity; but, in con- 
sequence of the edict of Gallienus, he was obliged to 
recognise the Christian Church as a lawful society. 



Celibacy is now in high esteem, as an antidote against 
the supposed influence of demons. 

It appears that at this period many females made pro- 
fession of religious chastity, but without forming them- 
selves into communities, and probably without taking 
upon themselves the obligation of a vow. 

Devout or Holy Virgins. Virgins of the Church, 

^72 Aurelian defeats Zenobia. 



Period.) to the first general council. 47 

Deposition of Paui of Samosata completed by Aurelian 
after the defeat of Zenobia. 

Constantine born. 

Aurelian was about to commence a persecution of the 
Christians when he died. (The Ninth Persecution, ac- 
cording to Augustin, De Civ. Dei, xviii. 52.). 



Rise of Manicheism in Persia. 

Manichees entirely distorted Christian doctrine, and 
accommodated it to a conformity with the Persian 
Theosophy. They formed themselves into a distinct cor- 
poration or church. 

Paulianists. The followers of Paul of Samosata con- 
tinued to exist as a distinct sect until the beginning of 
the fifth century. 



Tacitus, Emperor. 
Manes put to death. 
Manicheism (doctrine of two principles) begins to pre- 
vail in the West. 



Projbus, Emperor. 



(t Rabbi Johanan, compiler of the Gemara in the 
Talmud of Jerusalem.) 



Carus, Emperor, 
with his sons Carinus and Numerianus. 



During forty years of general toleration and tran- 
quillity, Christianity had made great progress. It was 
openly professed by large numbers of persons in all 
ranks of life. Christians were appointed to the govern- 
ment of provinces, and were excused from assisting at 
heathen sacrifices. 

Achillas, head of the Catechetical School at Alex- 
andria. 



48 FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH (First 

284 Diocletian, Emperor. 

286 Maximian Herculeus associated in the empire with 

Diocletian in Italy and Africa. 

Reported martyrdom of the Theban Legion, in Switzer- 
land, under Herculeus. 

Dionysius, Bishop of Paris, put to death. 



The Apostolical Constitutions and Canons are generally 
supposed to be a forgery of about this date. They pro- 
bably contain remnants of earlier compositions ; but the 
work, as a whole, although attributed to Clement of Rome, 
appears to have been compiled towards the close of this 
century, with a view to support the fictitious pretensions 
of bishops, and to assist the growth of episcopal power. 



292 Galerius Cassar in Italy ; Constantius Chlorus in Gaul, 

Spain, and Britain. 



TJie School of Antioch (distinguished by its strictly lite- 
ral and historical interpretation of Scripture) founded by 
Dorotheus, a presbyter. 



296 Origenist Controversy. 

Methodius, Bishop of Olympus, attacks the doctrines of 
Origen, which are defended by Pamphilus, a presbyter 
of Caesarea in Palestine. 



Hierax teaches that Christ is to be regarded as a mere 
lawgiver. 

Edict against the Manichees. 
(Manicheism had now made great progress in Egypt.) 



In his edict against the Manichees, Diocletian manifests 
a decided and exclusive attachment to the ancient super- 
stition. 

Diocletian, from motives of policy or humanity, had 
long tolerated the Christian religion ; but at length, in- 
duced probably by Galerius, the deadly enemy of the 
Christians, he manifests a disposition to persecute. 



Period.) to the first general council. 49 

Persecution in the court and army. All soldiers re- 
quired to take part in heathen sacrifices. 

Christians made subject to civil disabilities and bur- 
dens. 



In the 

Government and Constitution of the Church 

the Aristocratical Element 

becomes more and more predominant. 

Opposition and persecution on the one hand, and the 
efforts of false teachers on the other, had brought the 
several churches into close connexion and frequent com- 
munication with each other : hence arose the idea of The 
one Catholic Church, which had been supported by the 
writings of Irenseus, Tertullian, and Cyprian, and was 
now continually acquiring consistency and influence. But 
this idea of the unity of the Church was not yet associated 
with that of the supremacy of any one bishop, or the sub- 
jection of the whole body to the authority of any visible 
head. Bishops were subject (under God) only to pro- 
vincial councils, in which the metropolitan presided. 

Concerning the Councils which met during this century, 
observe, — 

1. They were all provincial. 

2. They were composed of bishops, presbyters, dea- 
cons, and laymen. 

3. They were occupied about matters of doctrine — the 
unity of the Church — ecclesiastical ceremonies — and 
discipline. 

4. Their decrees were binding only on churches re- 
presented in council. 

5. The decrees of different councils were sometimes 
inconsistent with each other, or even contradictory. 

The distinction between clergy and laity gradually 
widens (witness the practice of Lay Communion). A 
haughty and secular spirit manifests itself among the 

E 



50 FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH (First 



End of clergy. Major and minor orders of clergy. Fondness of 
Third power and pomp ; unlike the humility and simplicity of 
Cen- former times. 

Bishops were now distinguished by high-sounding 
titles and increasing influence. The equality of all 
bishops zealously asserted. Attempts of the bishops of 
Rome to usurp authority hitherto fruitless. 

Presbyters still continue to perform ministerial acts 
which were afterwards restricted to bishops. 

Deacons increase in importance; their number still 
limited. 

The additional ministers or officers in large churches 
were now — Subdeacons ; Acolyths ; Readers ; Porters ; 
Exorcists. 

The first instances of the translation of ministers from 
one charge to another occur during this century. 

Country churches possess their own bishops and pres- 
byters. 



Christians are still, for the most part, pious and exem- 
plary in their lives and morals. They regard faith as the 
source of love, and love as the parent of all Christian 
virtue. 

But there are many indications and instances of cor- 
ruption. Pride and indolence increase. Jealousies and 
dissensions multiply. 

Baptism, 

The following additional ceremonies are now connected 
with this rite : — - 

1. Exorcism. 

2. The kiss of peace. 

3. Candidates clothed in white garments. 

4. Imposition of hands by a bishop regarded as neces- 
sary in some places. 

Many persons now defer baptism, often until the hour 
of death ; a consequence of over-wrought statements and 
superstitious notions respecting the nature and efficacy 
of the sacrament. 



Period.) to the first general council. 51 

The Lord's Supper. 

1. Consecration and distribution of the elements as 
before. 

2. Received by baptized persons, including children ; 

3. In a standing posture. 

4. Some abuses connected with the conveyance of the 
elements to private houses. 

5. Still received under both forms ; but sometimes the 
bread (leavened) was dipped or soaked in the wine (mixed 
with water). 

6. Publicly celebrated on the Lord's day, but with 
some exceptions. 



Penitents are now divided into different classes, according 
to the various degrees of penance. 

In the West, public confession preceded absolution : in 
the East, private confession also was admitted. 

Fasting has risen in repute ; it is now observed on Wed- 
nesdays and Fridays : — during the week before Easter : 
— in some churches of the West, on Saturdays, but not 
without opposition. Christian liberty in this respect is 
not yet destroyed. 

Lay Communion. 

Christians now possess spacious and convenient places 
of worship in some parts. Many of their churches even 
assume an appearance of splendour. 

Mention of Feasts of Charity, and of Voluntary Obla- 
tions, becomes less frequent. 

The Kiss of Charity is still in use. 

The festivals continue as before : the Lord's day ; 
Easter ; Whitsuntide ; Anniversaries of Martyrs. 

Great virtue begins to be attributed to the Sign of the 
Cross. 

The officers of public worship are essentially the same as 
hitherto ; but certain practices connected with the read- 
ing of Scripture have grown into custom ; and in the 
larger churches the duties of Reader are discharged by an 
officer or minister specially appointed. Preaching is less 

e 2 



52 FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH (First 



End of simple in its character than formerly, preachers aiming at 
Third oratorical effect. 

Cen- Hours of prayer. The practice of praying three times 
a day is adopted by many Christians. 

Celibacy of the clergy is not yet recognised by ecclesiasti- 
cal law. 



TURY. 



The great doctrines of Christianity axe still (as hitherto) 
rightly stated, for the most part, in the writings of the 
Fathers. 

But errors likewise are found in the works of Minucius 
Felix, Cyprian, Origen, and Methodius. 

Origen rendered great service to the cause of Scriptural 
truth by his laborious revision of the sacred text, and his 
exposition of the literal sense ; but he contributed also to 
pervert and obscure it by his favourite system of allegor- 
ising. 

No regular system of Christian doctrine was yet com- 
piled, although something of the kind had been under- 
taken by Origen. 

Increasing admixture of philosophy with Christian 
theology : this opens a door to verbal controversies. 

Baptismal creeds or confessions of faith exhibit substan- 
tial agreements with slight variations. 

Doctrine concerning the Existence of God. 

The sacred writers and early Christian Fathers do not 
attempt in any way to demonstrate the existence of God. 
Belief in the fact is represented as a duty, and the ab- 
sence of such belief a folly or sin; it is treated as a 
subject not capable of demonstration. Tertullian, Ar- 
nobius, and Clement of Alexandria, appeal to innate ideas 
of God, and contend on that ground that proof is needless. 
Purity of heart described as the requisite faculty for 
apprehending this truth. 

The works of nature, and the consent of mankind in 
this belief, were not supposed to furnish a demonstration 
of the fact, but were regarded as a means employed by 
the Deity to lead men to the knowledge of himself. 



Period.) to the first general council. 53 

End of Thus matters stood until the time of Augustin. 

THE ° 

0^ Doctrine concerning the Nature and attributes of God. 
tury. The early Fathers of the Church taught simply, in ac- 

cordance with Scripture, that God is a Spirit, and that 
his nature cannot be comprehended by finite faculties. 
They maintained, especially, that God has no name, and 
that the terms Father, Creator, Lord, are not names of 
the Divine Being, but only declarations of his acts or 
works. It was generally agreed, that the divine nature 
or essence could not be the subject of definition. 

An opinion prevailed to some extent, during the third 
and fourth centuries, that God is not entirely incorporeal 
(Anthropomorphism). The School of Alexandria eventually 
subverted this doctrine, and established that of the abso- 
lute spirituality of the divine nature. 

We do not find any systematic distribution and clas- 
sification of the divine attributes in the writings of the 
earlier Fathers. 



Summary of Information relating to 
The Propagation of the Gospel 
In Asia. 
From Palestine soon to Antioch and Syria, and then to 
Asia Minor. Not long after, to Mesopotamia; towards 
the end of the second century, the Prince of Edessa was a 
Christian. From Edessa to Persia ; Gospel propagated in 
Media, Persia, Parthia, Bactria, in middle of second cen- 
tury. Also to Armenia during second century. The Gospel 
was preached in parts of Arabia and Ethiopia, by Pan- 
taenus, end of second century (according to tradition, by 
the Apostle Thomas). Christianity had made progress in 
Arabia during the third century. 

In Europe. 

Churches founded in Greece and Rome by Apostles. 

Churches at Lyons and Vienne in Gaul, early part of 

second century. Middle of third centuiy, churches 

founded at Paris by Dionysius, at Toulouse by Sa- 

e 3 



54 FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH (First 

turninus, and at other places in Gaul by missionaries 
from Rome (according to Gregory of Tours). Irenceus 
speaks of the spread of the Gospel in Spain and Germany. 
End of second century, Tertullian speaks of the propa- 
gation of the Gospel in Britain. (A tradition that Lucius, 
a British king, received missionaries from Rome about 
middle of second century ; but customs of ancient British 
churches, corresponding to those of Asia Minor, render it 
probable that the Gospel came from Gaul to Britain.) 

In Africa. 
The Gospel was preached in Egypt, and especially at 
Alexandria, during the lifetime of Apostles. Tradition 
speaks of St. Mark as founder of the Church of Alex- 
andria. From Alexandria, the Gospel spread to Cyrene 
at an early period. At the end of the second century, or 
the beginning of the third, Copts received the Gospel 
from Greek colonists of Egypt. No account concerning 
progress of the Gospel in Abyssinia. During the second 
century, the Gospel spread, probably from Rome, in Pro- 
consular Africa, and especially at Carthage. Christianity 
widely diffused in Mauritania and Numidia during second 
and third centuries. 



303 



300 At the commencement of this century, there was a con- 

siderable number of Christians in Persia, under the me- 
tropolitan bishop of Seleucia and Ctesiphon. 

In Arabia, Christianity is kept in check by the hostility 
of the Jews. 

Hierocles writes against Christianity ; drawing a com- 
parison between our Saviour and Apollonius of Tyana, 
unfavourable to the former. Answered by Lactantius, 
a. d. 303. 

Diocletian enacts severe laws against the Christians. 
Anthimus, Bishop of Nicomedia, put to death. 

Beginning of the Ten Years' Persecution (Tenth). 
Churches destroyed. Sacred books burnt. Christian 
assemblies prohibited. Several Christians put to death. 

& British Churches suffer severely during this persecu- 
tion. Alban, martyr. 



Period.) to the first general council. 55 

Galerius persecutes in the East. Edicts for the im- 
prisonment of the Christian clergy ; and for compelling, 
first the clergy, afterwards all Christians, to offer sacrifice 
to the gods. 

No persecution under Constantius in Africa, Gaul, 
Spain, and Italy. 



See of Rome vacant four years from this time. 

(t Porphyry.) 

Some Christians having delivered up their copies of 
the Scriptures, in compliance with the Imperial Edict, they 
were excommunicated for this offence. The question was 
again keenly agitated concerning the treatment of the 
Lapsed and the Traditores. 



Limits set to the marriage of the clergy by the Council 
of Elvira. 

Paintings in churches forbidden by the same council. 



Abdication of Diocletian and Maximian. 

Constantius and Galerius, Emperors. 

Severus and Maxi minus, Caesars. 

Constantius dies (at York). 

Galerius and Maximian, Emperors. 

Constantine, Maxentius, Maximinus, and Severus (after 
his death Licinius), Caesars. 



(al. 301.) Beginning of the Meletian Schism in Egypt, 
During the persecution under Galerius, when Peter of 
Alexandria had sought safety by flight, and other Egyp- 
tian bishops were imprisoned at Alexandria, Meletius, 
Bishop of Lycopolis, administered ordination, and also 
discharged other episcopal functions, in the dioceses of 
the absent bishops. He continued this conduct notwith- 
standing the remonstrances of the bishops, being sup- 
ported by Isidorus and Arius (afterwards celebrated for 
his erroneous tenets), by whose assistance Meletius became 

e 4 



56 FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH (First 

the bead of a party. Meletius deposed. This schism was 
formally terminated by the Council of Nicaea (325) ; but 
many of the Egyptian clergy refused to acknowledge the 
authority of the metropolitan of Alexandria during nearly 
a century afterwards. 

306 Maximinus persecutes in the East. Peter, Bishop of 
Alexandria, seeks safety in flight. Numbers of victims at 
Alexandria vary from ten to a hundred daily. Mutilation 
a favourite punishment. 

Licinius and Maximinus take the title of emperor. 
Alexander assumes that title in Africa. 

307 Pamphilus imprisoned at Caesarea. Alexander per- 
secutes in Africa. 



Pamphilus and Eusebius write the Defence of Origen. 
Arnobius, fl. 



3QQ Pamphilus put to death. 

Christianity had by this time been introduced among 
the Goths. 

(A Gothic bishop was present at the Council of Nicaea, ) 

Antony, great patron of Monachism, in the deserts of 

Egypt- 

310 Eusebius writes against Hierocles. 

Thirty-nine confessors of Palestine beheaded at one 
time. 

Hypsistarians, an obscure sect in Cappadocia. 



311 Caecilian elected Bishop of Carthage by the majority 

of the Church. 



Rise of Donatism. 
Majorinus opposed to Caecilian. After this time, the. 
Donatists continued for several years to elect a bishop of 
their own. The party of the Donatists was composed 



Period.) to the first general council. 57 

chiefly of those who sided with the Montanists, and advo- 
cated the more severe discipline. 



Acts of Pilate forged, containing a false and calumnious 
account of the life of Jesus. 



Alexander killed in Africa. Galerius dies, after having 
issued an edict in favour of the Christians. 

Lucianus put to death at Antioch. Peter, Bishop of 
Alexandria, put to death. Maximinus, finding his efforts 
ineffectual, issues an edict of toleration in favour of the 
Christians. 

Constantine marches against Maxentius. Alleged Vision 
of the Cross. Maxentius defeated and killed. 

Conversion of Constantine. 

Constantine and Licinius publish an Edict of Toleration, 
intended for the protection of Christians. This edict, 
misinterpreted, was used as an engine of persecution. 



f Lucian the Martyr; a supporter of the School of 
Antioch. 

Defeat and Death of Maximinus. 
Edict of Milan. 
Constantine and Licinius publish a second and more 
express Edict in favour of the Christians, and of universal 
toleration in religious matters. 

Constantine supports the claims of Caecilian at Car- 
thage. 

Donatus, Bishop of the Donatists, after the death 
of Majorinus. 

Council at Rome concerning the Donatists. 

Constantine and Licinius at war with each other. 
Licinius soon after makes peace on disadvantageous 
terms. 

Licinius persecutes in the East. Licinius becomes the 
champion of Paganism, as Constantine was the patron of 
the Christian worship. 



58 FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH (First 

314< Eusebius, Bishop of Csesarea in Palestine. 

Council of Aries decides against the Donatists, and 
affirms the validity of baptism by heretics. 

* Three British bishops were present at the Council 
of Aries. 

* Christianity re-established in Britain. Church at 
Verulam in honour of Alban. 

316 Constantine decides against the Donatists, having heard 
the cause pleaded by delegates of both parties. Dona- 
tists refuse to submit to the decision; their enthusiasm 
rises to fanaticism, under violent measures. 

317 Constantine sends a letter to the African bishops, 
enjoining moderation towards the Donatists. 



318 Rise of Arianism. 

Conference between Arius and his bishop, Alexander. 
The bishop maintained, with the Church at large, especi- 
ally in the West, the eternal generation of the Son of 
God from the Father, and his consubstantiality with the 
Father; Arius declared that the Son was created by the 
Father out of nothing, and that there was a time when 
he did not exist. 



319 Constantine tolerates Paganism, and protects the cele- 
bration of heathen rites by an edict. He destroys some 
heathen temples, but only on particular occasions, or in 
consequence of special provocation. 

Constantine fully exempts the clergy from liability to 
serve in civil offices ; partially granted in 313. This leads 
to a collision between the interests of Church and State ; 

320 and hence the emperor enacts that no person of rank or 
wealth shall enter the clerical body. Efforts to unite 
the interests of Church and State in this matter frequent 
until 383. 

About this time Lactantius completes his Institutions. 

321 Constantine decrees that both parties in the African 
Church (the Donatists and their opponents) should pos- 
sess equal rights. He persevered in this determination to 
the end of his life. 



Period.) to the first general council. 59 

Constantine commands a general cessation of business 
on the Lord's day. 

Avians. Arius deposed and excommunicated by a 
council. He found influential friends in Eusebius, Bishop 
of Nicomedia, and the sophist Asterius, of Cappadocia. 

Eusebius of Caesarea, and other favourers of Origenist 
(Semiarian, Homceousian) views respecting the Trinity, 
endeavoured by their mediation to restore peace in the 
Church of Alexandria. Constantine wrote a letter, exhort- 
ing both parties to moderation and forbearance in their 
speculative controversies. 

Hosius, Bishop of Corduba, and other Western bishops, 
persuaded Constantine that the doctrines of Arius were 
not consistent with the due acknowledgment of the divi- 
nity of Christ. 

Constantine at war with Licinius. Licinius defeated, 
taken prisoner, and put to death. 

Constantine sole Emperor. 

Constantine makes laws for the suppression of Pagan- 
ism and the propagation of Christianity. 

Christianity is now the Religion of the State. Em- 
perors are its professed guardians. They not only assert its 
liberty, and protect its external rights and privileges, but take 
measures for the preservation of doctrine and support of dis- 
cipline. 

Constantine formally accords a judicial power to bi- 
shops, when appeal has been voluntarily made to them by 
both contending parties. By degrees, also, is established 
the Intercessio episcoporum, or right of bishops to act as 
assessors or advisers of civil magistrates. 

Propagation of the Gospel. 
One half of the inhabitants of the Roman Empire profess 
Christianity. 



60 



FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH 



{First 



Bishops of Jerusalem, Antioch, Rome, and Alexandria, 
to the Year 325. 



46. 


(cir.) Evodius, Antioch. 


156. 


62. 


Symeon, Jerusalem. 


161. 




Annianus, Alexandria. 


163. 


67. 


Linus, Bishop of Rome ; 


166. 




perhaps appointed by St. Paul 


168. 




and St. Peter. 


N.B. 


The succession of the early bishops 


— 




of Rome is involved in great ob- 


— 




scurity and contradiction. 


— 


68. 


Anencletus, Rome. 


171. 


70. 


Ignatius, Antioch. 


173. 


82. 


Abilius, Alexandria. 


— 


93. 


(al. 91.) Clement, Rome. 


176. 


97. 


Cerdo. Alexandria. 


179. 


]00. 


Evarestus, Rome. 


181. 


104. 


Justus, Jerusalem. 


— 


107. 


Hero, Antioch. 


— 




Alexander, Rome. 


184 




Primus, Alexandria. 


187. 


112. 


Zacchceus, Jerusalem. 


188. 


114. 


Tobias, Jerusalem. 


189. 


116. 


(al. 119.) Xystus or Sixtus, 


— 




Rome. 


190. 


— 


Benjamin, Jerusalem, 


193. 


120. 


Matthias, Jerusalem. 


196. 


— 


Justus, Alexandria. 


201. 


122. 


Philip, Jerusalem. 


202. 


125. 


Seneca, Jerusalem, 


205. 


126. 


Justus, Jerusalem. 


208. 


128. 


Levi, Jerusalem. 


211. 





Telesphorus, Rome. 


214. 


129. 


Cornelius, Antioch. 


217. 


130. 


Ephrem, Jerusalem. 


218. 


131. 


Eumenes, Alexandria. 


222. 


132. 


Joseph, Jerusalem. 


229. 


133. 


Judas, Jerusalem. 


230. 


135. 


Marcus, Jerusalem. 


232. 


138. 


Hyginus, Rome. 


238. 


141. 


Heros, Antioch. 




142. 


Pius, Rome. 


239. 


143. 


Marcus, Alexandria. 


247. 


153. 


Celadion, Alexandria. 


250. 



AnicetuSj Rome. 
Cassianus, Jerusalem. 
Publius, Jerusalem. 
Maximianus, Jerusalem. 
Julianus, Jerusalem. 
Theophilus,, Antioch. 
Soter, Rome. 
Agrippinus, Alexandria. 
Caius, Jerusalem. 
Symmachus, Jerusalem. 
Eleutherus, Rome. 
Caius, Jerusalem. 
Julianus, Jerusalem. 
Apion, Jerusalem. 
Maximinus, Antioch. 

Julianus, Alexandria. 

Maximus, Jerusalem, 
Antonius, Jerusalem. 

Demetrius, Alexandria. 

Serapion, Antioch. 
(al. 185.) Victor I., Rome. 
Valens, Jerusalem. 
Dulichianus, Jerusalem. 
Narcissus, Jerusalem, 
Zephyrinus, Rome. 
Dius, Jerusalem. 
Germanio, Jerusalem. 
Gordianus, Jerusalem. 
Asclepiades, Antioch. 
Alexander, Jerusalem, 
Philetus, Antioch. 
Callistus, Rome. 
Urbanus, Rome. 
Zebinus, Antioch. 
Pontianus, Rome. 

Heraclas, Alexandria. 
Anteros, "I p^ TT , 

-r, J- tlOME. 

iABIANUS, J 

Babylas, Antioch. 

Dionysius, Alexandria. 
Fabius, Antioch. 



Period.) 



TO THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL. 



61 



251. Cornelius, Rome. 

252. Lucius, Rome. 

— Demetrianus, Antioch. 

253. Stephen, Rome. 
257. Sixtus II., Rome. 

259. Dionysius, Rome. 

260. Paul, Antioch. 

264. HymenceuSy Jerusalem. 

265. Maximus, Alexandria. 

269. Felix, Rome. 

— Domnus, Antioch 
274. Eutychianus, Rome. 
276. Timaeus, Antioch. 

281. Cyril, Antioch. 

282. Theonas, Alexandria. 

283. Caius, Rome. 



297. Zabdas, Jerusalem. 

299. Tyrannus, Antioch. 
— Hermori) Jerusalem. 

300. Peter., Alexandria. 

304. Marcellinus, Rome. 

(See of Rome vacant). 

308. Marcellus, Rome. 

300. Eusebius, 



Eusebius, "1 t, 
Melchiades,J Rome - 

exai 

J 



Alexandria. 



311. Peter, Alexandria. 

312. Achillas, 
— Alexander, 

313. Melchiades, Rome. 

314. Silvester, Rome. 

— {ALEXANDER, BYZANTIUM.) 
326. Athanasius, Alexandria. 



Councils before the Year 3'25. 



Councils in Asia Minor and 
Thrace, against the Mon- 
tanists and other false 
teachers, between 150 
and 173. 
(Euseb. H.E. v. 16.) 

(Provincial) Councils in va- 
rious parts of Christendom, 
concerning the time of 
celebrating Easter, be- 
tween 196 and 199. 

Before the end of this cen- 
tury, the practice of as- 
sembling annual councils 
had been adopted in Asia 
Minor. 
215. Carthage ; against baptism 
by heretics. 

230. Alexandria. 

231. Iconium. 
240. Carthage. 

242. Bostra, in Arabia (concern- 
ing Beryllus). 



245. Ephesus (against Noetus). 

251. Carthage (against Felicissi- 

mus, and concerning the 
Lapsed). 

— Rome (against Novatian). 

252. Carthage (infant baptism ; 

and baptism by heretics). 

— Antioch (against. Novatian.) 

253. Carthage (baptism of in- 

fants). 

254. Carthage. 

255. Carthage (baptism by he- 

retics). 

256. Carthage (baptism by he- 

retics). 

— Rome (against the decisions 

of Carthage). 
258. Rome (against the doctrines 

of Noetus). 
260. Rome (under Dionysius, 

concerning Dionysius of 

Alexandria). 
265. Antioch (against Paul of 

Samosata). 



62 FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH, ETC. 

269. Antioch (Paul deposed). 315. (al. 314. 318.) Ancyra (con- 

305. (al. 313.324.) Illiberis (El- ' cerning the Lapsed). 

vira), (on discipline). — Neocaesarea (on discipline). 

— Cirta, in Numidia. 321. Alexandria (Arius excom- 

312. Carthage (Csecilian deposed municated). 

by the Donatists). — (Other councils, in Bithynia 

313. Rome (against the Dona- and Palestine, in favour 

tists). of Arius). 

314. Aries (against the Dona- 324. Alexandria (against Arians 

tists). and Colluthians). 



END OF THE FIRST PERIOD. 



PERIOD II. 

FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL TO THE DEATH 
OF GREGORY THE FIRST. 

325—604. 



325 



CONSTANTINE, EMPEROR. 

Rule of Faith settled by Imperial authority. Heterodox 
banished. Religious liberty abridged. 
The Council of Nic^ea. — It was composed almost 
entirely of members of Oriental Churches. 

First General Council 
Convened, and ratified, by the emperor. 

The Council enacts that the election of every provincial 
bishop shall be confirmed by the metropolitan, before his 
ordination, which shall be performed by not less than 
three bishops ; — that deacons shall not usurp the privi- 
leges of presbyters ; — that two councils shall be held 
every year in each province. 

Measures for putting an end to the Meletian Schism. 

The doctrine of Arius that the Son of God is not co- 
eternal with the Father, and that he is a created being, 
condemned as heretical by the Council. 

Nicene Creed, or Confession of Faith, 
in which the Son of God is declared to be 6f*,oov<rio§ tw 
7rarpi, consubstantial with the Father. 

Eusebius of Caesarea proposed a confession of faith 
which all parties could subscribe. But Alexander and his 
friends, including Athanasius, a young deacon of Alexan- 



64 FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL (Second 

dria of great ability, insisted upon the necessity of a formal 
and unequivocal condemnation of the tenets of Arius. 
Accordingly, certain additions were made to the confession 
of Eusebius, which received the sanction of the emperor. 
Hence the Nicene Creed. Eusebius subscribed this confes- 
sion ; which, however, he interpreted in accordance with 
his own views : and he persuaded other Origenist or Semi- 
arian Oriental bishops to do the same. 

Arius, Theonas, and Secundus, refusing to receive this 
confession, were banished to Illyria. Eusebius of Nico- 
media and Theognis of Nicaea were banished to Gaul : — 
in a confession presented by the former, the Son of God 
is declared to be only ofxoiovo-ioc, i. e. of like substance 
with the Father. 



Religious ceremonies increase greatly in number and pomp. 
Christian worship systematised. Heathen rites adopted or 
imitated. Splendid vestments. 

Dispute respecting the time of celebrating Easter, 
settled by the Council of Nic&a. The Jewish customs 
of Asia Minor rejected. 

Celibacy of the Clergy. 
At the council of Nicaea an attempt was made to 
establish strictly and universally the celibacy of the 
clergy; but, upon the motion of Paphnutius, it was 
merely enacted that all bishops, presbyters, or deacons, 
unmarried at the time of their ordination, should not be 
permitted to marry afterwards. 

About this time Pachomius establishes in Egypt the rules 
of a strictly monastic life. 
326 Helena, mother of Constantine, said to have found the 

cross on which our Lord died, at Jerusalem. 



Constantine puts to death his son Crispus, and after- 
wards his wife Fausta. 



f Alexander, Bishop of Alexandria. Athanasius suc- 
ceeds. 



Period.) to the death of Gregory the first. 65 

f Lactantius (probably between 325 and 330). 



About this time, a thousand bishops presided over the 
Eastern Church, and eight hundred over the Western. 

Testamentary bequests in favour of the Church per- 
mitted. 

The clergy exempted from civil offices and burdens. 



The adherents of the Jewish custom as to the time of 
celebrating Easter formed henceforth a distinct party, 
opposed to the Catholic Church, under the name of 
Tsa-vupza-xutisxoLTiTOLi, Quartodecimani ; so called from their 
celebration of the festival on the fourteenth day of Nisan. 



Avians. Constantine, influenced by Eusebius of Caesa- 
rea, and other Semiarian bishops, and probably by his 
sister Constantia, recurs to his original opinion, that 
Arius did not virtually deny the divinity of Christ ; and 
that much of the opposition which had been made to him 
and his doctrines had originated in jealousy. 
Arius and the bishops of his party recalled from exile. 

Many heathen temples converted into churches. 
Discipline variously enforced in different places. 
Councils frequently employed in the regulation of this 
matter. Distinction between the clergy and laity in 
point of discipline. 

Christianity introduced into Iberia. 



Constantinople, as a Christian city, the imperial resi- 
dence. 

New division of the Roman empire into prefectures, 
dioceses, and provinces. 

A party of Donatists having demolished a church be- 
longing to Catholics, the emperor compels the destroyers 
to rebuild it at their own cost. 



Eustathius, Bishop of Antioch, deposed. His adhe- 
rents (Eustathians) begin a schism. 



66 FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL (Second 

Rise of the Dignity and Power of Metropolitans. 



331 



335 



336 



337 



About this time Eusebius writes his Ecclesiastical 
History and other works. 

Juvencus, a Christian poet, fl. 



In the latter part of his reign, Constantine published 
an edict (which, however, did not take effect), prohibiting 
the public exercise of heathen worship, — Sacrificia 
publica. 

Arians. Constantine declares himself satisfied with a 
confession of faith presented to him by Arius, and 
commands his restoration, as presbyter, in the Church of 
Alexandria. Athanasius, now Bishop of Alexandria, 
maintains, however, that the doctrine of Arius is un- 
christian, and refuses to obey the emperor's injunction. 
Hereupon the enemies of Athanasius represent him to 
the emperor as hostile to the peace of the Church. 

Athanasius summoned before a council at Tyre, com- 
posed chiefly of his declared enemies. Dissatisfied with the 
course of their proceedings, he repairs to Constantinople, 
to demand of the emperor a new hearing and examination. 
Deposed by the council. Next year, 336, the enemies of 
Athanasius again assemble at Constantinople. Athanasius 
banished to Treves, in Gaul. Marcellus of Ancyra 
deposed. 

Arius, having been restored to the communion of the 
Church at Jerusalem, seeks the same reception at Con- 
stantinople. Notwithstanding the efforts of the Bishop 
of Alexandria, a day is fixed for his re-admission into the 
Church; but before the arrival of the appointed time 
Arius dies suddenly. 

Marcellus, Bishop of Ancyra, who held peculiar doc- 
trines respecting the nature of Christ, deposed by the 
Eusebians, in a council at Constantinople. 



Constantine baptized, shortly before his death, by the 
Arian bishop Eusebius, of Nicomedia. 



Period.) to the death of Gregory the first. 67 

337 f Constantine. Buried in the Church of the Apostles 

at Constantinople ; — first instance of the kind. 

Constantine II. and Constans, Emp. West. 

CONSTANTIUS, EMP. EAST. 

Constantine II. and Constans favour the Nicene expo- 
sition of doctrine. Constantius supports the Arians. 



Avians. Constans restores Athanasius ; who is enthusi- 
astically received by his church at Alexandria. 

The enemies of Athanasius engage Constantius in 
their interest against him, and seek to enlist on their 
side also Julius, Bishop of Rome. Julius demands that 
both parties appear before a council of Western bishops. 
Athanasius willing to comply; not so his opponents. 



War with Persia, with various success, until 363. 



Eusebius of Nicomedia, Patriarch of Constantinople. 



f Constantine II. 



f Paul the Hermit, f Eusebius of Caesarea. 



Monachism. 
The monastic spirit did not spread so soon or so ra- 
pidly in the West as in the East. But it made its way 
even there. Athanasius, during his exile in Gaul, brought 
it into repute, and published his " Life of Antony." It 
was introduced about this time, by Hilarion, into Syria 
and Palestine. Nuns in Egypt. 



Constantius zealous for the suppression of Paganism. 
An edict against the celebration of heathen sacrifices 
(renewed in 346, 350, 353, 356), with orders for closing 
of the temples. Some temples destroyed, others converted 
into Christian churches. 



Council of Antioch ; against Athanasius and Marcellus 
of Ancyra. 



f 2 



68 FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL (Second 

Gregory, Arian Bishop of Alexandria. Athanasius 
flees to Rome. 
Macedonius (Eusebian) Patriarch of Constantinople. 
342 Council at Rome, in favour of Athanasius. 



Avians. (341.) The Council of An tioch deposes Athan- 
asius, and appoints Gregory of Cappadocia Bishop of 
Alexandria. Athanasius flees to Rome. (341 and 342.) 
The bishops of Antioch (for the most part Semiarian), in 
order to prove their orthodoxy, publish four confessions 
of faith, approaching very nearly to the Nicene doctrine, 
but avoiding the term bpoov<rioc. (343.) The Council 
of Antioch condemns the tenets of Photinus, who had re- 
vived the doctrine of Paul of Samosata. 

Donatists. 
Constans, hoping to reconcile the Donatists to the 
dominant church, showed them great favour, and made 
them a grant of money. Donatus returned the money, 
with a strong protestation against such an alliance of 
Church and State. Constans then adopted violent mea- 
sures ; by which means the contest between Donatists 
and Catholics became more fierce than ever. 

Circumcelliones among the Donatists. 



Persecution of Christians in Persia, under Sapor, be- 
gins.— (343.) Symeon, Bishop of Seleucia, put to death. 
The Magi had represented the Christians as in league 
with the Roman emperor, or favouring his cause. 



343 Tlie Power and Privileges of Metropolitans confirmed and 

increased by the Council of Antioch. 



Julius Firmicus Maternus, fl. 



The number of days appointed to be kept holy in com- 
memoration of saints is now considerable. 



345 Arians. The Antinicene bishops at Antioch publish a 

fifth confession of faith, more copious than the others 



Period.) to the death of Gregory the first. 69 

(paxpoo-TiXo; exQecri$) 9 in which the Son of God is styled 
perfect and very God, like to the Father in all things. 
The Western Church, however, persists in adhering to the 
creed of Nicaea. Hence a Division between the Eastern and 
Western Churches. 

Council at Milan condemns the doctrines of Photinus, 
who taught that Christ was a mere man, but miraculously 
born, and endued with divine powers. His followers 
were called Homunciones. 

Athanasius returns to Alexandria. 

(al. 344.) A general council convened by Constantius 
at Sardica in Illyria, for composing the difference between 
the Eastern and Western Churches ; but, in consequence 
of the conflicting interests of the Oriental or Nicene and 
the Western bishops, the council divided itself into two ; 
one (Oriental) at Philippopolis, which confirmed the 
fourth creed of Antioch; and the other (Western) at Sar- 
dica, which supported the decrees of Nicaea, denouncing 
all further definitions or explanations. 

The decrees of Sardica, supported by Constans and 
Constantius, were generally received, even in the East. 
Athanasius restored. 

It was enacted by the Council of Sardica that none 
should be eligible as bishop without having previously 
discharged the office of reader, deacon, or presbyter. 

By this council a kind of general right of supervision 
was given to the bishop of Rome. It was decreed that if a 
foreign bishop should appeal from the decisions of his 
church to the bishop of Rome, the latter should institute 
a new examination of the case by the neighbouring bi- 
shops, and should send to the assembly a presbyter as his 
own representative and plenipotentiary. 

* British bishops were present at the Council of 
Sardica. 

Constans killed. Constantius sole emperor. 



Cyril, Bishop of Jerusalem. 
f 3 



70 FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL (Second 

350 Festival of the Nativity celebrated at Rome on the 

25th of December. 



About this time, Theophilus probably laboured for the 
propagation of the Gospel in India. Subsequently amongst 
the Homerites, or Sabseans, in Arabia Felix. 

Iberians on the Black Sea (in Georgia) converted to 
Christianity, in consequence of the good example and in- 
fluence of a female slave. 

Gospel propagated in Abyssinia by iEdesius ; in Ethio- 
pia, by Frumentius. 

During this century, the Gospel makes progress in 
Armenia. Gregory (Illuminator) converts the king Tiri- 
dates. Hilarion and other monks endeavour to propagate 
Christianity among the Nomadic Arabs. 



Church and State. 

During this century, 1. The emperors convened, and 
presided in, general councils; 2. Confirmed their de- 
crees ; 3. Enacted laws relative to ecclesiastical matters 
by their own authority; 4. Pronounced decisions con- 
cerning heresies? and controversies ; 5. Appointed 
bishops; 6. And inflicted punishment on ecclesiastical 
persons. 

Hence arose complaints that the bishops had conceded 
too much to the emperors ; while, on the other hand, some 
persons maintained that the emperors had left too much 
in the hands of the bishops. The bishops certainly did 
possess too much power and influence, to the prejudice of 
the other clergy, and especially to the disadvantage of 
Christians at large. 

Bishops become more and more independent of their 
presbyteries. As a body, they possess legislative power in 
councils ; as individuals, their exercise of judicial authority 
adds to their importance. Growing opinion of their apos- 
tolical authority and descent. Learning and eloquence of 
many among them increase respect for the whole order. 
The laity retain a negative vote in the election of bishops ; 
— great irregularities attend the exercise of this right 



Period.) to the death of Gregory the first. 71 

Translations of bishops, forbidden by the Council of Nicaea, 
sometimes take place. 

Thus, the emperor and the bishops share the chief 
government of the Church between them; but the limits 
of their authority were not well denned. Great part of 
the power formerly possessed by the general body of 
Christians (the laity) had passed into the hands of the 
civil governor. 

During this century, care continues to be used in set- 
tling the canon of Scripture. 

Scriptural doctrines concerning the Holy Trinity in 
Unity, and the nature of Christ, are not only maintained, 
but carefully expounded and settled ; — a benefit which 
resulted to the Church from the circumstance of its teachers 
being called upon to expose and resist the Arian, Photi- 
nian, Macedonian, and Apollinarian errors. 

But some unscriptural tenets on other subjects are 
advanced or implied in the writings of almost all the emi- 
nent Fathers of this age. 



Gall us, Caesar, in Syria. 
Julian, brother of Gallus, studies at Constantinople and 
Nicomedia. Already prejudiced against Christians, he 
becomes decided in his hostility by reading the works of 
Libanius. The Pagan party, roused by persecution, seek 
to attach him more firmly to their interests. 



First Council of Sirmium. 

Arians. (351.) Constans being d^ad, the enemies of 
Athanasius use their influence with Constantius against 
the bishop. A council assembled at Sirmium, in Panno- 
nia, deposes Photinus, Bishop of Sirmium, who maintained 
that Christ was a mere man ; and condemns the doctrine 
of Marcellus of Ancyra, a friend of Athanasius. 

The enemies of Athanasius, determined, if possible, to 
effect his ruin, notwithstanding the support of the Western 

f 4 



72 FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL (Second 

Church, prevail upon Constantius, during his residence in 
in the West, to command all Western bishops to subscribe 
a condemnation of his person. 

At the Councils of Aries in 353, and of Milan in 355, 
the greater part of the Western bishops were induced to 
join in condemning Athanasius; others, who persisted in 
refusing to do so, were deposed or banished, — including 
Liberius of Rome, Hilary of Poitiers, and Lucifer of 
Cagliari. Thus a momentary silence was imposed upon 
the Western Church, and George of Cappadocia was 
made Bishop of Alexandria. Valens and Ursacius, Arian 
bishops, exercise great influence over the emperor. Felix, 
Bishop of Rome, Arian ; Auxentius, Bishop of Milan, 
Semiarian. 

Arianism at its height. 



354 Constantius causes G alius to be put to death. 

355 Julian, Caesar, in Gaul, after having studied at Athens, 
together with Gregory Nazianzen and Basil. 



Monachism. 



The passion for a monastic life had now become very 
prevalent, and was attended with injurious consequences 
to Church and State. Many had become monks out of 
vanity or idleness, merely as following the example of 
others. The institute operated injuriously to religion by 
means of the obscurity which ascetic doctrine and prac- 
tices threw over the way of salvation, and by the fanatical 
spirit which was fostered among the monks. It was de- 
trimental to the state by withdrawing from the business 
of life many who ought to have taken an active part in 
civil offices. Men left their wives, and servants their 
masters, under colour of peculiar sanctity. Many refused 
to acknowledge married priests as worthy of the clerical 
office. — Eustathius, Bishop of Sebaste in Armenia, was a 
great advocate of the monastic life. 

During this century, monks become divided into two 
great classes, — Anchorites and Cenobites. 



Period.) to the death of Gregory the first. 73 

356 t Antony (the Great), 

a celebrated promoter of Monachism. 



Gregory Nazianzen teaches Rhetoric at Athens. 



Athanasius retires to the deserts of Egypt. Hilary, 
Bishop of Poitiers, an opponent of Arianism, banished to 
Phrygia. 

Second Council of Sirmium, against Photinus, and in 
support of Arianism. Hosius induced to subscribe an 
Arian confession of faith. 

Council of Antioch. — Aetius, Eudoxius, Acacius, and 
Eunomius, contend for the strict Arian or Anomcean 
doctrine. Council of Ancyra. 

Liberius restored to his bishopric (Rome) after having 
subscribed an Arian confession of faith. He subsequently 
adhered to the Nicene or orthodox doctrine, notwithstand- 
ing this abjuration. 

Avians. Arians and Semiarians had hitherto been 
united in their opposition to the adherents of the Nicene 
Creed. After the victory which they had obtained, their 
own differences of opinion led to dissensions among them- 
selves. The strict Arians, headed by Aetius, a deacon of 
Antioch, and Eunomius, Bishop of Cyzicus, declare that 
the Son of God is unlike the Father as to his substance 
(uvo^oios xar ov<rlctv) ; hence called Anomceans. The 
Semiarians, on the contrary, assert a likeness of sub- 
stance in the Son and the Father ; hence called 
Homceousians, — with Basil, Bishop of Ancyra, and 
George of Laodicea, at their head. 

In order to prevent an open rupture, the Council of 
Sirmium, in 357, under the influence of Ursacius and 
Valens, Anomcean bishops, declared all definitions and 
assertions concerning the substance of the Son of God to 
be unscriptural, and beyond the human understanding. 
Second Creed of Sirmium. — But the Homceousians, disco- 
vering the design of the Anomceans, procure a synodal 
letter in favour of their own doctrines from a council as- 
sembled, in 358, at Ancyra, under Basil. 



74 FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL {Second 

359 Tliird Council of Sirmium. — Council at Ariminum, of 

Catholics and Arians. The former insist upon the Nicene 
doctrine, but are soon afterwards induced to subscribe a 
Semiarian confession at Nice. Council at Seleucia, com- 
posed of Semiarians and Anomceans. Divisions among the 
Arians. 

Constantius had resolved to convene a general coun- 
cil as the only means of peace. The strict Arians, or 
Anomceans, fearing lest the Nicene and Homceousian 
bishops should unite against themselves, Ursacius and his 
Arian friends combine with some leaders of the Semi- 
arians in a council at Sirmium, and prepare a creed, 
the third Sirmian Creed, for presentation at the ap- 
proaching general council. This creed approximated 
most nearly to the doctrine of the Semiarians, who, how- 
ever, consented to avoid all definitions respecting the ou<ria 9 
and merely asserted that the Son of God was " like unto 
the Father in all things" (opoiog xchtol t:6lvtoC), accord- 
ing to the Scriptures. The Arians, not satisfied with 
this, resolved at all events to prevent the union of the two 
adverse parties, induced the emperor to convene, instead 
of one general council, two separate councils, an Oriental 
council at Seleucia in Isauria, and a Western at Ariminum 
[Rimini) in Italy. Their partisans divided themselves 
between both councils, in order to overreach the Western 
Nicene bishops and the Semiarians of the East. The 
Council at Seleucia at first resolved to adhere to the fourth 
creed of Antioch, and that at Ariminum to the Nicene. 
The Council of Ariminum sent ambassadors to the empe- 
ror with its decisions, and a petition praying for dismissal 
of the bishops to their respective dioceses. Ursacius and 
Valens took measures to prevent their legates from re- 
ceiving an audience ; and having wearied them with delay, 
at length prevailed upon them to subscribe a confession, 
essentially the third Sirmian Creed, declaring that the Son 
of God is like the Father (omitting in all things), accord- 
ing to the Scriptures. Valens by arguments and threats 
prevailed upon the bishops still at Ariminum to adopt the 
creed thus subscribed by their representatives. 



Period.) to the death of Gregory the first. 75 

Thus, under the plea that the Western Church had 
consented to abandon the Nicene Creed, the representatives 
of the Seleucian Council were induced to adopt the same 
confession ; and Constantius declared that all who should 
henceforth raise the question concerning the substance 
(oucr/a) of the Son of God, should be treated as enemies 
of the peace of the Church. 

But neither of the contending parties was satisfied with 
what had taken place, those who had subscribed the 
creed being regarded as traitors to the cause of truth ; 
and, with the death of Constantius in 361, the scheme of 
Ursacius and Valens failed. 

(N.B. * Many British bishops present at the Council of 
Ariminum.) 



Phoobadius fl. 



Macedonius, 
Semiarian Bishop of Constantinople, deposed by the 
Arians. He denied the consubstantiality of the Holy 
Ghost with the Father. His followers were called Mace- 
donians, or Pneumatomachi. Their opinions were con- 
demned by the Council of Alexandria (362). 



t Eusebius, Bishop of Emisa. 



Constantius causes the supposed relics of St. Andrew, 
St. Luke, and Timothy, to be conveyed to the Church of 
the Apostles at Constantinople. 



Julian, Emperor. 

Julian openly renounces the Christian religion, and en- 
deavours to re-establish Paganism. He commands uni- 
versal toleration. This toleration becomes decisive in 
favour of the Nicene exposition of doctrine. 



Meletius, Bishop of Antioch, deposed. His adherents 
(Meletians) separate from the Eustathians. 



76 FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL (Second 

36 1 Second Meletian Schism. 

J Macedonius. 

Gregory Nazianzen ordained presbyter. 
t Hosius, Bishop of Corduba. 

362 Athanasius and the Council of Alexandria attempt in 
vain to put an end to the Meletian Schism. Divisions at 
Antioch multiplied. The council excuses those bishops 
who had lately, out of ignorance or fear, subscribed the 
creed of Arian origin. 



Julian writes against Christianity; grants permission 
to the Jews to rebuild the Temple ; forbids Christians to 
teach the liberal arts and sciences ; commands all Christ- 
ian sects to tolerate each other; recals the exiled 
bishops, and restores them to their office, with the ex- 
ception of Athanasius, who is again compelled to quit 
Alexandria. Christians lose all their immunities and 
privileges. Apollinaris, a presbyter of Laodicea, and his 
son, bishop of that city, write against Julian and Hea- 
thenism. 

Donatists. 

(361 — 363.) Julian secured toleration to the Donatists 
in Africa; they recovered their churches, which had 
been taken from them, and continued to exist as a distinct 
but moderate party. 

# Soon afterwards divisions arose among the Donatists 
themselves. Tichonius attempted to establish a middle 
system, between those of the Catholics and the more 
strict Donatists. 

Avians. 

3(33 Athanasius returns to Alexandria. Council of Alex- 

andria asserts the Nicene doctrine, and the divinity of 
the Holy Ghost. Communion with all who receive the 
Nicene Creed, without reference to former opinions. 

Valens, a zealous Arian, was restrained in his proceed- 
ings against the other parties only by the circumstances 
of the times, and the steadfastness of the orthodox 
bishops. 

The Semiarians separate themselves more and more 



Period.) to the death of Gregory the first. 77 

widely from the Arians, and unite more closely with the 
adherents of the Nicene Creed against the common enemy. 
The spread of the Nicene doctrine greatly promoted by 
Basil, Bishop of Neocaesarea; his brother Gregory, of 
Nyssa ; and Gregory Nazianzen. 



Jovian, Emperor. 

Jovian favours the Catholic doctrine ; restores the pri- 
vileges and immunities of the Church ; recals the exiled 
bishops ; no persecution, either of Pagans or Christian 
sects. Toleration and conciliatory measures towards all. 
Athanasius possesses great influence with Jovian (in a 
letter to whom he praises the orthodoxy of the British 
churches). 

Jerome at Rome. 



Valentinian I. Emp. West. 
Valens, Emp. East. 
Valentinian favours the Catholics ; Valens, the Arians. 
The latter opposes alike Homoousians and Homceousians, 
takes away their churches, and banishes their bishops, 
including Meletius and Gregory of Nyssa. 

Valentinian tolerant and moderate. He protects the 
heathen temples. Freedom of religious worship and 
opinion. 

Western Church tranquil and flourishing. 

In the East, Valens still persecutes the Orthodox ; pro- 
bably at the instigation of Eudoxius (Arian) Bishop of 
Constantinople. Basil the Great and Gregory Nazianzen 
zealously oppose the measures of Valens with some success. 



The Council of Gangra, in Paphlagonia, held probably 
about this time, attempts to set bounds to the passion for 
Monachism. It recognised Monachism as a Christian 
institution ; but it also recognised Matrimony as a holy 
state, and assumed the possibility of leading a Christian 
life in possession of temporal goods. It condemned all who 



78 FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL (Second 

should embrace the monastic profession out of aversion 
from matrimony or the business of life, and all who 
should refuse to attend divine offices celebrated by a 
married priest. 

366 Sanguinary contests between the parties of Ursicinus 
and Damasus, after the death of Liberius, Bishop of 
Rome. Damasus elected bishop. 

367 Epiphanius, Bishop of Constantia or Salamis in Cyprus. 



Valentinian sets limits to the law by which Constantine 
had empowered the Church to receive testamentary 
bequests. 

Athanasius obliged to protect himself by flight; but he 
remained in retirement only a few months, in consequence 
of the earnest demands of his people. He spent the rest 
of his days in peace (died 373). 



368 Heathen superstition is now generally renounced by the 

educated classes of society. 

In an edict of this year, the adherents of the ancient 
superstition are styled, for the first time, Pagani. 



Valens publishes an edict, ordering that all persons 
who had embraced the monastic life out of idleness, or in 
order to avoid the discharge of civil duties, should be 
forcibly withdrawn from their retirement. 



f Hilary, Bishop of Poitiers. He contributed greatly 
to the establishment of Nicene doctrines in Gaul and 
Italy. 

Aerius, presbyter under Eustathius, Bishop of Sebaste 
in Armenia, becomes the leader of a small party. He 
opposed especially the pre-eminence of bishops, and the 
practices of fasting and prayer for the dead. He even 
held that the distinction between bishops and presbyters, 
such as prevailed in his time, is unlawful. 



Period.) to the death of Gregory the first. 79 

.S70 Basil made Bishop of Coesarea in Cappadocia. About 

the same time, Chrysostom appointed Reader at Con- 
stantinople. 

First mention of " Cantores," singers or precentors, in 
public worship. 

Clerical Education. 
The bishops and clergy privately trained many young 
men (readers and others) for the clerical office. Others 
received education at the theological schools ; and others 
in the schools of general literature, e. g. Alexandria and 
Athens. By many it was erroneously supposed, that any 
special education or preparation for the work of the mi- 
nistry was needless. Chrysostom, Gregory Nazianzen, 
and Augustin, inveighed against the last mentioned (very 
prevalent) opinion, and the consequent practice. 



Lucifer, Bishop of Cagliari, head of a small and short- 
lived sect, — Lucifer ians. 

Companies of itinerant monks in Mesopotamia, called 
£vQov<riu<7Tal and sv^ha.1, Chald. j^^ft, hence Messalians. 

They renounced all kinds of labour, and professed to 
occupy themselves continually in prayer. 

Divine worship was now conducted with more pomp 
and splendour than formerly, but its parts and substance 
remained nearly the same as in the last century. It con- 
sisted in psalmody, prayer, reading of the Scriptures, 
preaching, and the celebration of the Lord's supper. 
Until the practice of infant baptism became general, it 
was divided into two parts, — the one, didactic (reading 
of the Scripture and preaching), in which the catechumens 
were allowed to share (Missa Catechumenorum) ; the other, 
containing the type and bond of spiritual communion, 
namely, the celebration of the Lord's supper, with its 
accompanying prayers (Missa Fidelium). 

During this century, the religious use of pictures and 
images was discountenanced. Eusebius of Csesarea, at 



&0 FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL (Second 

the beginning of the century, and Epiphanius of Salamis, 
towards the close of it, denounced the practice as hea- 
thenish and unscriptural. 

The veneration of martyrs and saints, and the superstitious 
use of relics, had now greatly increased. 

Lighted tapers in churches, 8fc. 
Incense. 



Ulphilas propagates (Arian) Christianity among the 
Visigoths, and becomes their bishop. He constructs an 
alphabet for them, and translates the greater part of the 
Scriptures into their language. 

QjQ Gregory Nazianzen, Bishop of Sasima. Gregory, bro- 

ther of Basil, Bishop of Nyssa. 



Edict against the Manichees. Persecution of this sect, 
continued for some time, excites their enthusiasm, but 
fails to root out their doctrine. 

PrisciUian ists. 
Gnostico-Manichean doctrines had spread (probably 
from Africa) into Spain ; where PrisciUian constructed a 
system compounded of the doctrines of Emanation, Dual- 
ism, and Astrology. Two bishops, Instantius and Salvian, 
among his followers. Severe measures against them on 
part of the Catholics (especially Hyginus, Bishop of Cor- 
duba, and Idacius of Emerita) tend to increase their zeal. 

The Orthodox greatly oppressed in Egypt by Arian 
influence. 

373 Lucius, an Arian, and opponent of Athanasius, forcibly 
made bishop of Alexandria. Orthodox clergy, who sup- 
ported an election, banished. 

J Athanasius. 

374 Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, — after the death of Auxentius, 
who was the only considerable opponent of the Nicene 
doctrine belonging to the Western Church. Ambrose was 
a powerful defender of the doctrine of the divinity of 
Christ and the Holy Spirit. Philastrius, Bishop of 
Brescia, who died in 390, wrote also on the same side. 



Period.) to the death of Gregory the first. 81 

dT(5 Valentinian and Gratian, Emp. West. 

Gratian zealously supports the orthodox faith ; but 
tolerates the Arians. — Eunomians, Photinians, Manichees, 
and Donatists, forbidden to hold religious assemblies. 

Under Valens, the Arians persecute the Orthodox. 

Gratian was the first Christian emperor who renounced 
the title of Pontifex Maximus. 



Jerome embraces the monastic life, and begins his ex- 
position of Scripture. 

Epiphanius writes. 
Didymus of Alexandria writes against the Macedonians. 
Martin, Bishop of Tours. 
f Ulphilas, Bishop of the Goths. 
Gregory of Nyssa banished. 
Gregory Nazianzen labours in defence of the Nicene 
doctrine at Constantinople. 

Theodorus, Bishop of Tarsus, a learned expositor of 
Scripture. 

Ruffin, Presbyter of Aquileia 5 betakes himself to an as- 
cetic life on the Mount of Olives. 

Jerome ordained presbyter, at Antioch, about this time. 
J Ephraim the Syrian, deacon at Edessa. 
"(" Basil (the Great) of Ccesarea. 



After the death of Valens (378) Gratian favours the 
Orthodox, and recals the exiled bishops. (Gregory of 
Nyssa restored.) 

Union of Natures in Christ. 

Apollinaris the Younger, at the head of a party main- 
taining that, in Christ, the divine Logos, or mind, was in 
the place of a rational human soul. The Arians also held 
that the divine Logos had united itself to a human body 
only. 

N.B. From this time two different systems prevailed 
in the Orthodox Church, concerning the union of the divine 
and human natures in Christ. — 1. The Alexandrian 
Church, anxious to give prominence to the real and inti- 

G 



82 FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL (SeCOTld 

mate union of the two natures, was accustomed to predi- 
cate the same things equally of both (e. g. the Logos was 
crucified ; Mother of God). — 2. The Church of Antioch, 
on the other hand, carefully distinguished the natures, and 
avoided predicating the same things of both. Hence the 
latter charged the former with erroneously confounding 
the two natures ; while the Church of Alexandria up- 
braided that of Antioch with incurring the risk of sepa- 
rating the deity and humanity of Christ into two persons, 
and of denying the true deity united with the manhood. 
A third system, between these two, was eventually esta- 
blished, and generally received as orthodox. 

Origenist Controversy. 
The great writers of the fourth century were largely 
indebted to the study of Origen. Others, especially the 
monks, were divided into two classes; on the one side, 
those who favoured Anthropomorphite representations of 
God and divine things ; and, on the other side, the friends 
of spiritual mysticism and advocates of Origen. Among 
the former, a leading man was Epiphanius ; among the 
latter, Jerome, and his friends Ruffin and John, Bishop of 
Jerusalem. Admiration of Origen now begins to be 
unsafe. 

Monachism. 

The bishops, especially Basil, endeavour to correct the 
abuses of Monachism by reducing it to a system, and 
establishing regular societies of monks and monasteries 
(ccenobia) in which monks should be occupied in moderate 
daily labour, and submit to the presidency of a superior 
(abbot, archimandrite), implicit obedience to whom 
should constitute their chief virtue. It was hoped that 
societies thus formed might become useful for the increase 
of learning and piety, especially by educating the youth 
and the clergy, and might also produce good by reliev- 
ing men's temporal wants in poor and needy districts. 
Female societies of this kind had been already formed, 
and convents established. Irrevocable vows of chastity are 



Period,) to the death of Gregory the first. 83 

now exacted. The practice of taking the veil has been 
introduced. 

Funeral ceremonies multiplied. 

Christian churches now generally acquire the right 
of asylum, which had formerly belonged to heathen 
temples. 

Christian morality suffers great detriment from the influ- 
ence of monks and mystics, and from its contact with their 
mistaken principles of piety and duty. 
Extravagant opinions concerning the supposed merit of celibacy. 

Theodosius, Emp. East. 
Theodosius baptized. Restores to the Catholics the 
churches of Constantinople, which the Arians had pos- 
sessed nearly forty years. Proclaims the doctrines held by 
Damasus, Bishop of Rome, and Peter, Bishop of Alex- 
andria, as the standard of Orthodoxy ; and makes the 
Heterodoxliable to civil punishments. Demophilus vacates 
the high church at Constantinople ; of which Gregory 
Nazianzen takes possession. 

Priscillianists. — Council of Saragossa excommunicates 
Priscillian and his followers. Gratian condemns them to 
exile. Priscillian, however, procures continued toleration. 



First Council of Constantinople (Second General) con- 
vened by Theodosius. Eunomians, Pneumatomachi, 
Sabellians, Marcellians, Photinians, Apollinarists, con- 
demned. 

Gregory Nazianzen, Bishop of Constantinople, re- 
signs ; and is succeeded by Nectarius. 

Gregory had failed in an attempt to put an end to the 
Meletian Schism at Antioch. 

The Bishop of Constantinople declared to be second in rank 
only to the Bishop of Rome. He gradually becomes the 
Second Patriarch. 

Creed of Constantinople, 
containing some additions to that of Nicaea, especially 
concerning the divinity of the Holy Spirit, against the 
Macedonians. Victory was now decided in favour of the 

g 2 



84 FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL (Second 

Nicene doctrines, which had been questioned or denied 
only in some portions of the Church, particularly in the 
East. 

Decline and Fall of Arianism. 
From this time the Arians existed as a distinct, but op- 
pressed, party in the Roman Empire. Their tenets, how- 
ever, were propagated and maintained among various 
tribes of Barbarians, — Vandals, Goths, and Lombards, — 
until the middle of the seventh century. 

Theodosius intolerant in his zeal for Orthodoxy. 



380 



383 



Theodosius forbids the burying of corpses in towns. 
Choral singing introduced by Ambrose. 



Chrysostom ordained deacon at Antioch; and soon 
after writes his Treatise on the Priesthood. 

Gregory of Nyssa at the Council of Constantinople. 

Jerome, at Rome, assists the Bishop JDamasus in biblical 
studies ; improves the old Latin translation of the Scriptures ; 
favours monastic institutions. 

Epiphanius, Jerome, Ambrose, and Siricius, strenu- 
ously assert the perpetual virginity of the mother of our 
Lord, against the Antidicomarianites of Arabia, Hel- 
vidius of Rome, and Bonosus, Bishop of Sardica. 



Maxim us, Usurper, after the death of Gratian. 

Arians favoured in the West by the Empress Justina, 
mother of Valentinian II. Ambrose successfully exerts 
himself in opposition to her influence. 

Difficulties affecting the interests of Church and State, 
with reference to the civil exemptions of the clergy, 
adjusted by way of compromise. Clergy confirmed in 
their exemptions and immunities ; all persons eligible to 
the clerical office; but those liable to civil burdens, on 
account of rank or property, required to make provision 
for the discharge of their duties by others, before they 
can themselves enter the clerical body. 



Period.) to the death of Gregory the first. 85 

Priscillianists. Council of Bordeaux against the Priscil- 
lianists. Priscillian, and two of his adherents, beheaded at 
Treves (385). Theognistus, Martin of Tours, and Siricius 
of Rome, protest against these proceedings. The sect of 
the Priscillianists, esteeming evasion lawful for the propaga- 
tion of their opinions, survives this persecution and others. 

First instance of the infliction of capital punishment upon 
reputed heretics. 

Didymus teaches at Alexandria, 
t Hilary, the Deacon. Damasus, Bishop of Rome. 

t Optatus of Milevi. 
Exegetical theology begins to be cultivated; but with 
great disadvantage, arising from want of legitimate criti- 
cism, and fondness for allegorical interpretation. 



Theophilus, Bishop of Alexandria; he zealously op- 
poses the new claims of the Patriarch of Constantinople. 

Gradual Extension of the Power of the 
Roman See. 

Siricius nominates the bishop of Thessalonica as his 
" Vicar Apostolical." * 

N.B. The Church of Eastern Ulyria had attached 
itself to the See of Rome, in consequence of the tempo- 
rary prevalence of Arianism in the East. 

In the course of divisions and controversies by which 
the Oriental Churches were distracted during the fourth 
and fifth centuries, the decisions of the Patriarch of Rome, 
who was independent of the temporal power, and famed 
for orthodoxy, naturally had great weight with at least 
one of the contending parties. His decisions were humbly 
sought, and authoritatively given. 



"j" Cyril, Bishop of Jerusalem. 
Jerome retires to a monastery at Bethlehem. 
Chrysostom ordained presbyter at Antioch. 
(He celebrates the Festival of the Nativity on the 25th 
of December, according to the custom already established 
in the West.) 

g 3 



&6 FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL (Second 

387 Augustin converted from Manicheism, and baptized, 
at the age of thirty years. 

f Philastrius, Bishop of Brescia. 

388 Maximus defeated. 
Valentinian II. Emp. West. 

At this time the majority of the inhabitants of Rome 
are Christians. The Roman Senate recognises Christianity 
as the religion of the empire. 

Extensive conversion of the Gauls. 

The Gospel introduced into various parts of Germany. 

Theodosius gradually prohibits all heathen sacrifices 
and religious rites throughout the empire. 

During this reign the ancient superstitions generally 
acquire the name of Paganism. Advocates of Heathenism 
(e. g. Themistius, Symmachus) now merely plead for its 
toleration as one system of religion among many, on the 
ground that God is most extensively honoured by diver- 
sity of forms and creeds, naturally incident to so exalted 
a subject in the present condition of the human mind. 



Siricius, Bishop of Rome, discourages the marriage of 
the clergy. In his epistle (decretal) to Himerius, Bishop 
of Tarragona in Spain, he pronounces, as Vicar of Christ, 
against such marriages ; and says that it would be useful 
and honourable to Himerius to make this decision gener- 
ally known, although no priest ought to be ignorant of 
the ordinances of the apostolic chair. 

Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, pretends to discover certain 
relics of saints. 



About this time, Helvidius at Rome, and Bonosus, 
Bishop of Sardica, but especially Jovinian, a Roman monk, 
speak slightingly of the value of celibacy and fasting, and 
protest against monastic abuses. Jovinian denied the 
merit of monastic exercises, condemned the celibacy of the 
clergy, and inveighed against ascetic institutes and prin- 
ciples in general, as being at variance with true Christian 
doctrine and morality. He appears to have expressed 
himself obscurely and paradoxically, or to have been be- 



Period.) to the death of Gregory the first. 87 

trayed by his zeal into excessive statements. He was 
severely attacked by Jerome, and was excommunicated 
by Siricius, Bishop of Rome, and Ambrose, Bishop of 
Milan. 

Theodosius compels the Christians to restore a certain 
synagogue which they had destroyed. Ambrose compels 
him to retract his order. 



J Gregory Nazianzen. 
(He was a zealous and powerful defender of the Nicene 
Confession.) 

After an insurrection at Thessalonica, Theodosius 
causes seven thousand men, the innocent with the guilty, 
to be put to death. For this crime, Ambrose imposes 
penance upon the emperor, and excludes him from church 
communion during eight months. 



Nectarius puts an end to the office of Presbyter Peni- 
tentiarius at Constantinople. 



The Church now possessed lands and other property to 
a considerable amount. This operated as one cause of 
declension in the morals of the clergy. It was protested 
against by some ecclesiastical writers of this age. 



j" Macarius the elder. 
Many bishops and doctors of the Western Church advo- 
cate the cause of Monachism. At this period, Ambrose 
of Milan and Jerome of Rome are particularly zealous 
in its favour. In Gaul, Martin of Tours is its warm 
advocate. 

Augustin writes against the Donatists, who decline en- 
gaging in a formal disputation with him. 

Gnostics and Manichees continue to exist (sometimes as 
separate sects, and sometimes united) in the East, espe- 
cially in Syria. Manicheism especially in North Africa. 



Augustin ordained presbyter at Hippo Regius. 
G 4 



88 FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL (Second 

Augustin, as a presbyter, frequently called upon to 
preach in the presence of his bishop ; contrary to the 
practice which had hitherto prevailed in Africa. 



39% Valentinian II. killed. Eugenius, Usurper. 

Eugenius favours Heathen Superstition. 
394" Eugenius killed. 

Theodosius the Great, sole Emperor. 

Theodosius completed the overthrow of Heathenism. 

Christianity almost universal in the empire. 



Jerome composes his Catalogue of Ecclesiastical Writers. 

Heliodorus and Nonnus, Christian poets, fl. 

Cento Virgilianus of Proba Falconia. 

Claudian, a Christian poet, fl. 

j" Amphilochius of Iconium. 

395 t Gregory of Nyssa. Diodorus of Tarsus. 

Arcajdius, Emp. East (with Rufinus). 
Honorius, Emp. West (with Stilico). 
Arcadius and Honorius zealously support the Ortho- 
dox. 

T Macarius the Younger. 

Cassian visits the monks and hermits in the Thebaid 
and other places. 

Origenist Controversy. 

Epiphanius goes to Jerusalem and demands a condem- 
nation of the opinions of Origen. Jerome is alarmed. 
Vehement controversy between John of Jerusalem and 
Ruffin on the one part, and Jerome and Epiphanius on 
the other; composed, in 397, by the mediation of Theo- 
philus, Bishop of Alexandria. Ruffin, returned to Aqui- 
leia, translates into Latin the Books of Origen, weo) Sip^cov, 
with omissions. Violent controversy between Jerome 
and Ruffin. This controversy produced little effect. 

Many Origenists and Anthropomorphites among the 
monks in Egypt. Disputes between them. 

About this time, Augustin becomes Bishop of Hippo. 



Period.) to the death of Gregory the first. 89 

396 * Didymus of Alexandria. 

T Libanius, an opponent of Christianity. 
T Ambrose, Bishop of Milan. 



The Ostrogoths gradually receive (Arian) Christianity 
from the Visigoths. 

# Culdees on the coasts of Ireland and Scotland. 



Third Council of Carthage. Canon of Scripture. 
Chysostom, Patriarch of Constantinople. 
Edict of Arcadius against the ecclesiastical right of 
asylum ; without any permanent effect. 



Origenist Controversy. 
Theophilus, Bishop of Alexandria, openly combats 
the opinions of the Anthropomorphite monks, whom he 
pacifies with difficulty. Afterwards, partly from fear, 
partly from personal hatred against certain individuals of 
the Origenist party, he sides with the Anthropomorphites 
against the Origenists ; and unites with Epiphanius and 
Jerome in endeavouring to procure a condemnation of 
the opinions of Origen. Hence the Councils of Alexan- 
dria, 399 and 400, condemn the doctrines and writings of 
Origen. Theophilus persecutes the Origenist monks. 



Prudentius, a Christian poet; Nemesius, a Christian 
philosopher, fl. 

Councils during this century, 
1 . Were partly general, partly provincial ; 2. Frequently 
convened by the emperors ; 3. Held under the presi- 
dency of emperors or their representatives, or of the 
bishop of the city or province in which they met ; 
4. Sometimes received and decided complaints against 
bishops ; 5. Their decrees were ratified by emperors. 



Rites, Institutions? fyc. 
Agapce, or Feasts of Charity, had now fallen into disuse. 
Superstitious veneration of martyrs and their relics, 
credulous reliance upon their reputed powers of interces- 



90 FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL (Second 



THE 
FOURTH 
CEN- 
TURY 



end of sion, reports of miracles and visions at their tombs, and 
other follies of this kind, form a prominent feature in the 
religion of the age. 

Tithes (voluntary and partial) were paid before the 
close of this century. When demanded as due, there ap- 
pears to have been great difficulty in collecting them, at 
least in many places, for some time henceforth. 

New Festivals during this century. Christmas-day, 
Ascension-day, Whitsunday (in the modern sense). 

Baptismal Rites, Ceremonies, fyc. — 1. Wax tapers in 
the hands of the candidates ; 2. Use of salt, milk, wine, 
and honey ; 3. Baptisteries ; 4. Easter and Whitsuntide, 
times of baptism ; 5. Twofold anointing, before and after 
baptism ; 6. Dominica in Albis. 

The Lord' s Supper, 1. was now commonly called Missa 
by the Latins ; 2. Tables had come into use, and were 
now called altars; 3. Liturgies used at the celebration of 
the rite ; 4. Elements still administered in both kinds as 
before; 5. No private masses. 



400 Irruption of the Visigoths into Italy, under Alaric. 



f Martin, Bishop of Tours. 



During the debate and contests which agitate the 
church, certain metropolitans acquire preponderating in- 
fluence and power. Hence the 

Rapid Progress of Church Oligarchy, and Form- 
ation of the Patriarchate. 

Among the clergy, Archdeacons are now next in in- 
fluence to bishops. 

Presbyters are appointed by the bishops ,• the bishops 
elected (except when imperial influence interfered) by 
the other bishops of the provinces, but with the concur- 
rence of the churches ; which, in the West, often elected 
without the concurrence of the other bishops. 

End of the Meletian Schism; Flavian, at first the Me- 
letian bishop, being recognised as bishop by all parties. 



Period.) to the death of Gregory the first. 91 

In Africa, Faustus revives Manichean doctrines for a 
little while. Augustin writes against him. 



Christians again tolerated in Persia, through the in- 
fluence of Maruthas, a Mesopotamian bishop, who had 
acquired the confidence of the king. 



Priscillianists unite with other Spanish bishops. 



Origenist Controversy. — The Origenist monks, per- 
secuted by Theophilus in Egypt, take refuge in Palestine 
and other countries. ^Theophilus pursues them even to 
Constantinople, where Chrysostom is disposed to afford 
them protection, and endeavours, by his mediation, to 
effect a reconciliation. 

The controversy now assumes the form of a sharp 
personal dispute between Chrysostom and Theophilus ; 
the latter, as bishop of Antioch, having long been jealous 
of the power of the bishop of Constantinople. Theo- 
philus summoned to Constantinople to answer for his 
conduct. 

Epiphanius, at Constantinople, contends vehemently 
against Chrysostom and the Origenists. 

Theophilus, having gained the Empress Eudoxia 
over to his side, presides in a council at Chalcedon (ad 
Quercum), before which charges are preferred against 
Chrysostom. Chrysostom deposed, excommunicated, and 
banished to Bithynia ; but hastily recalled the same year, 
when he entered Constantinople in triumph, Theophilus 
obliged to retire. 

j" Epiphanius. 

Machinations of Theophilus against Chrysostom. Eu- 
doxia again offended, and Chrysostom banished to 
Caucasus, on the borders of Armenia and Cilicia. In his 
place of exile he labours assiduously for the benefit of his 
church. 

* Paula, at Bethlehem. 



Abolition of Gladiatorial Shows. 



92 FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL (SeCO?ld 

Pelagius, at Rome, writes Expositions of the Pauline 
Epistles, and instructs Ccelestius in his opinions. 



Vigilantius complains of the respect lately begun to be 
paid to martyrs and their relics ; of the nocturnal cele- 
bration of divine worship ; of the celibacy of the clergy ; 
and of Monachism. 

Jerome writes against Vigilantius, and declares that he 
ought to be put to death as a heretic. 



Sulpicius Severus writes a Jewish and Christian Church 
History. 

405 Severe laws against the Donatists ; punishing their 

laity with confiscation of property, and their bishops 
with exile. Augustin is at first opposed to such measures, 
but afterwards he defends the use of violence in order to 
bring men over, for their own good, to the Church, in 
which salvation may be obtained. Early apology for 
ecclesiastical usurpation and tyranny. 



Importance of the patriarch of Rome increased by the 
removal of the seat of civil government from Rome to 
Ravenna, under Honor ius. 



407 Irruption of the Vandals, Sueves, and Alans, into 
Gaul. 

Chrysostom ordered to a more severe place of exile on 
the Black Sea. He died in course of his removal, near 
Comana in Pontus. 

N.B. The persecution of Chrysostom gave rise to a 
difference between the Greek and Roman Churches, 
which continued until due respect was paid to his memory 
under Theodosius II. in 438. 



Christianity having been made the Religion of the 
State, and many persons having been induced to profess 
the Gospel, who were secretly attached to their aneieut 
superstition, occasion was hence given to the intro- 



Period.) to the death of Gregory the first. 93 

duction of many human inventions and superstitious 
practices into the Church, for the purpose of meeting 
the depraved taste of these nominal converts to the Faith. 
These practices exerted an influence upon the doctrines 
of the Church. 

Palladius fl. 



In Africa, Augustin patronises Monachism, endeavouring 
to make the institution as useful as possible. 

Ccelicolae. 

The divine right of Tithes was zealously asserted by 
some Fathers about this time. 



Origenist Controversies 
were lost in the struggle against Chrysostom; they were 
not revived until the middle of the sixth century. 

Advance towards the doctrine of Purgatory. 
Augustin thinks it probable that the purgation of souls 
by fire, which Origen had taught, may take place in the 
interval between death and the day of judgment, instead 
of being deferred until the latter period. 



Theodosius II. (about eight years old) Emp. East. 

Honorius continues to reign in the West. He causes 
Stilico to be put to death. 

(The education of Theodosius was conducted under the 
influence of eunuchs and monks; hence, probably, he ac- 
quired an ascetic kind of piety, and that blind veneration 
of the clergy by which he was afterwards distinguished. 
His sister, Pulcheria, also had great influence in the ad- 
ministration of affairs throughout the reign.) 
Alaric plunders Rome. 

The Vandals, Sueves, and Alans, pass the Pyrenees, and 
establish themselves in Spain. 



Paulinus, Bishop of Nola, a Christian poet. 



94 FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL (Second 

410 Synesius, Bishop of Ptolemais. He denied the doctrine 

of the Resurrection. 

f Buffin. "f* Nonnus, a Christian poet. 



* The Roman Legions withdrawn from Britain. 



Pelagians. 
Pelagius propagates his opinions at Rome. 
Hitherto it had been the constant doctrine of the Church, 
that man, as he is now born into the world, is not in his 
originally perfect and upright moral condition ; that, ac- 
cordingly, no mere development or cultivation of his own 
faculties is sufficient to enable him rightly to fulfil the end 
of his existence, or to attain to the state and happiness for 
which he was designed; but that, on the other hand, human 
nature, in its present corrupt state, having lost its original 
affinity or likeness to God, and being disturbed by an un- 
godly principle of selfishness, man stands in need of an 
inward change by the almighty power of God, in order to 
be able to live according to his original nature, and to do 
good, with real holiness of heart. During the first four 
centuries this was, in general, the doctrine of all divines ; but 
there were certain special points on which they were not en- 
tirely agreed ; and they differed particularly in attempting 
to define the relation of the remaining moral faculties of man 
to the divine power. This difference subsisted chiefly between 
the Eastern and Western Churches, and also between 
certain portions of the latter. The chief writers of the 
West, especially Tertullian and Cyprian in the third cen- 
tury, Hilary of Poitiers, and, more particularly, Ambrose, 
in the fourth, gave prominence to the doctrine of man's 
corruption, and the necessity of a change or conversion of 
his nature by divine grace ; but the Alexandrian teachers, 
on the other hand, especially Clement, and other Orientals, 
e. g. Chrysostom, placed in the foreground the doctrine of 
the power of man's remaining free will, as working before 
and together with divine grace. In the fifth century, these 
two systems were brought out in their full difference, and 



Period.) to the death of Gregory the first. 95 

openly arrayed against each other ; the latter especially 
being pushed to such an extreme as actually to oppose the 
earlier doctrine of the Church. This took place in the 
course of the controversy between Augustin and Pelagius, 



Conference at Carthage between Catholics and Donatists, 
under the presidency of Marcellinus, imperial commis- 
sioner. Bishops present, 286 Catholic, 279 Donatist. 
The chief points of debate were, whether Felix of Ap- 
tunga, who had ordained Caecilian, was a traditor or no ; 
and whether a church loses its character as such by holding 
communion with unworthy members ? Each party ad- 
hered to its former positions: the president decided 
against the Donatists. 

Severe laws framed against the Donatists tended hence- 
forth to diminish their numbers. But some remains of the 
party existed until the end of the next century. 



John Cassian, author of " Monastic Conferences and 
Institutions" (Collationes, Institutiones) , founds two mo- 
nasteries at Marseilles. 



Pelagians. 

(411.) Pelagius and his friend Ccelestius go to Carthage. 
Pelagius, afterwards, to Palestine. In 412, Ccelestius was 
summoned before a council at Carthage, to answer a 
charge of heterodoxy brought against him by Paulinus. 
The council discussed two propositions of Ccelestius: 1. 
That the sin of Adam had affected only himself, not the 
whole human race. 2. That children are born into the 
world in the same condition as that in which Adam was 
before the fall ; also the question, whether human nature 
is corrupt since the fall or not ? Ccelestius refused to 
retract his opinions, and was excommunicated. 



(Babylonian Talmud compiled.) 



Irruption of the Visigoths into Gaul. 



96 FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL (Second 

Rufus, Bishop of Thessalonica, vicar (apostolical) of the 
patriarch of Rome. 
412 t Theophilus of Alexandria. 

Augustin begins his treatise De Civitate Dei. 
Jerome writes against the Pelagians. 



414 Irruption of the Burgundians into Gaul. 

Persecution of Christians in Persia, in consequence of 
the imprudent zeal of Abdas, Bishop of Suza, who demo- 
lished a heathen temple, and refused to rebuild it. 



415 Visigoths in Spain take Barcelona. 

Theodosius issues an edict against Gamaliel, Patriarch 
of the Jews, who was active and powerful in his opposition 
to the Christians. 

Cyril expels the Jews from Alexandria. 

Relics of St. Stephen and other saints, said to be dis- 
covered and translated. 

The Vandals, Sueves, Visigoths, and Burgundians, after 
their irruptions into Gauland Italy, become (Arian) Christ- 
ians. Perhaps the Burgundians had been converted be- 
fore they left the banks of the Rhine. 



Pelagians. 

(415.) Pelagius accused by Paul Orosius, a Spanish pres- 
byter, before a council at Jerusalem, and by two Gallic 
bishops, Heros and Lazarus, before another council at 
Diospolis; but acquitted. His doctrine was more in accord- 
ance with that of the Oriental Churches than with the tenets 
of the West; and his explanations were deemed satisfactory. 

Augustin maintains the doctrines of the total corruption 
of human nature, original sin, irresistible grace, and the 
absolute decrees of election, against Pelagius. His system 
finds general acceptance in the West. Innocent I. favoured 
it. Zosimus at first (417) inclined to Pelagius, but was 
afterwards (418) induced to join in condemning him. 



416 Innocent I., Bishop of Rome, requires all Western Churches 

to conform to the customs of the Church of Rome, 



Period.) to the death of Gregory the first. 97 

Council at Carthage, against Pelagius : appeals for aid 
to Innocent of Rome. Innocent opposed to Pelagius. 

Pelagius and Ccelestius repair to Rome. Zosimus, the 
new patriarch, satisfied with their explanations and state- 
ments. 

| John, Bishop of Jerusalem. 

Council at Carthage condemns Pelagianism. The 
Emperor Honorius publishes a Sacrum Rescriptum against 
Pelagius. Zosimus assents to the decree of the council. 
Eighteen Pelagian bishops in Italy deposed. 



Paul Orosius publishes a Roman History as an apology 
for the Christian religion against the objections of the 
Heathen. 

The African bishops refuse to acknowledge the appellate 
jurisdiction of the patriarch of Rome. 

At Rome there are now twenty-six churches, and more 
than seventy presbyters. 

In the West, Augustin and his system triumph in oppo- 
sition to Pelagian tenets. Julian, a Pelagian bishop, 
writes against Augustin. 



f Jerome, 



Age of 
Controversy, pompous Ceremonial, 
rising secular power, and growing corruption, 
of the Church. 



Persecution rages in Persia under Baranes V. 



Augustin actively engaged in controversy against the 
Pelagians and Donatists. He speaks of the purification 
of the soul by fire after death as not improbable. 

Ccelestinus, Patriarch of Rome, zealously opposed the 
Pelagians. 

Marius Mercator writes against them. 



98 FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL (Second 



im 



425 



Valentinian III. Emp. West. 
Theodosius is still Emperor of the East. 



About this time all mention of Jewish patriarchs is 
lost in history. 

Simeon Stylites attracts attention in Syria. 
Edict of Valentinian against the Pelagians. 

In the East only a few Heathen temples remain; the Heathen 
excluded from offices and posts of honour. Valentinian III. 
makes it a capital offence to go over from Christianity to 
Heathenism, or to assist at Heathen sacrifices. 

The revenues of the Church have now become very large ; 
having been continually augmented by testamentary be- 
quests and voluntary contributions. The celibacy of the 
clergy also tended to the same result. 

Rise of the Semipelagians. 
A party of theologians in southern Gaul, with John 
Cassian of Marseilles (a pupil of Chrysostom) at their 
head, assert the necessity of the cooperation of divine 
grace and the human will, maintain that God works 
differently in different men, and reject the doctrine of 
predestination as a vain speculation of mischievous ten- 
dency. They were called at first Massilians ; afterwards, 
by scholastic writers, Semipelagians. 



At this date the History of Philostorgius ends. 



426 Augustin writes his Retractationes. — His great work, 

De Civitate Dei, published. 



Christians again tolerated in Persia. 



Some monks of Adrumetum deduce from Augustin's 
doctrine of absolute predestination the inutility of moral 
endeavours, and the injustice of punishment for sin. 
Augustin answers them in his books, De Gratia et Libero 
Arbitrio, De Correptione et Gratia. 

428 Nestorius, a monk and presbyter of Antioch, made 

patriarch of Constantinople. 



Period.) to the death of Gregory the first. 99 

Nestorian Controversy. 

The term Ssqtoxos begins now to be generally applied 
to the Virgin Mary ; Nestorius objects to its use. Cyril 
of Alexandria takes part against Nestorius. Rise of a 
controversy concerning the relation and union of the 
divine and human natures in Christ. Nestorius suspected 
of Photinianism and Samosatenism. 

Augustin defends his system against the Semipelagians 
in two treatises concerning Predestination and Final 
Perseverance. 

| Theodore, Bishop of Mopsuestia. 



The Vandals pass over into Africa. 



Theodosius the Younger issues an edict imposing civil 
disabilities on the Jews, and prohibiting the erection of 
any new synagogues. 



Hilary, Bishop of Aries. 
At this date the History of Theodoret ends. 
Prosper of Aquitain publishes a poem against the 
Semipelagians. 

t Augustin. 
t Synesius, Bishop of Ptolemais. 



The Franks pass the Rhine, and occupy part of 
Belgic Gaul. Foundation of the kingdom of France. 



Council of Rome, against Nestorius, in which he is de- 
clared a heretic, and deserving deposition. Ccelestinus 
refers the matter to the decision of Cyril of Alexandria, 
as vicar of the Roman see. Cyril summons Nestorius to 
Alexandria, where he convenes a council, which proposes 
twelve propositions to be anathematized by Nestorius. 
Nestorius in return requires Cyril to anathematize twelve 
counter-propositions, and charges him with Apollinarian- 
ism. 

Council of Ephesus (Third General), 
convened by Theodosius at the request of Nestorius. 

h 2 



100 FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL (Second 

Unfair proceedings of Cyril and his party. Nestorius 
condemned. Qsotoxos established as the title of the Virgin 
Mary. Errors of Ccelestius, the friend of Pelagius, de- 
nounced. Syrian and other Oriental bishops, upon their 
arrival, annul the former decrees of the council, condemn 
the propositions of Cyril as heretical, and excommunicate 
Cyril himself. The emperor proposes to institute a new 
examination; but Nestorius, dreading the influence of 
Cyril at court, retires to his monastery. 

Patriarchs forbidden to exercise jurisdiction over 
churches not originally subject to their respective sees. 



43^ "j" Paulinus, Bishop of Nola. 

(431,432.) Two edicts of Theodosius, by which the 
right of asylum was formally granted and secured to 
Christian churches and their precincts. 

In Crete many Jews embrace Christianity, having saved 
themselves from the delusions of a Jewish impostor. 
432 * Patrick (or Succath, a native of Scotland) begins 

to preach Christianity in Ireland. 



Although Pelagianism was condemned by the Council 
of Ephesus, yet the opposite (Augustinian or Occidental) 
system was never established in the East. 

The Nestorians separated themselves from the Catholic 
Church after the Council of Ephesus. They suffer perse- 
cution. Many of them settle in Persia. N.B. Nestorians 
maintain, that in the person of Christ there is no hypo- 
statical union of the divine and human natures, but only 
an union of will and affection. 



433 Attempts at reconciling the Alexandrian and Antiochenian 

parties. Cyril subscribes a confession of faith drawn up 
by Theodoret, substantially Nestorian, but avoiding the 
condemnation of Cyril's propositions. Sentence of depo- 
sition against Nestorius confirmed. Compromise unsatis- 
factory to both parties. At length Theodoret yields to 
the wishes of the emperor; and Alexander, Bishop of 



Period.) to the death of Gregory the first. 101 

Hierapolis, and Meletius, Bishop of Mopsuestia, adhering 
to the Nestorian cause, are deposed and banished. Nes- 
torius was banished to the great Egyptian Oasis, and after- 
wards to the Thebaid, where he died. His writings were 
burnt by order of the emperor. 



Continued attempts to spread Christianity among the 
Nomadic Arabs. Influence of the Jews prejudicial. 

Persecution of the Catholics in Africa by the (Arian) 
Vandals. 

Theodosius takes an active part in the Nestorian con- 
troversy. 

Edicts of Theodosius II. and Valentinian (434), of 
Valentinian and Marcian (454, 455), of Leo and Anthe- 
mius (470), of Zeno soon after, and of Anastasius, favour 
the increase of Church property, and forbid its alienation. 



Prosper writes against the Semipelagian doctrines of 
Cassian. 

Vincent of Lerins writes his Commonitorium. (Semi- 
pelagian tenets find general acceptance among the monks 
of southern Gaul, including Vincent.) 

The Athanasian Creed was probably composed about 
this time for the use of the Gallican Church. 



T Cassian. 



(Theodosian Code.) 
At this date the Histories of Socrates and Sozomen 
end. 

Salvian. Treatise on Providence. 



Christian morality declines. — Two distinct codes of 
morals gradually formed, one for perfect Christians, and 
another for the more common class of believers; — the 
former consisting of mysticism and ascetic or overstrained 
virtue, — the latter in the performance of outward cere- 
monies and ritual observances. The distinction itself un- 

h 3 



102 FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL (Second 

sound and mischievous ; the morality, to a great extent, 
perverted or fictitious. 

History now records fewer examples of high Christian 
character than before. Complaints of the Fathers, and 
decrees of councils, lead us to fear that impiety and dis- 
orderly conduct prevail within the borders of the Church 
to a melancholy extent. 

Superstition makes rapid progress. 

The numerous controversies of this age tend to foster and 
propagate an undue respect for human authority and opinion 
in matters of faith. 

Salvian speaks of pious bequests to the clergy as a kind 
of purchase of salvation (redemptio animae). 

The Aristotelian logic begins to rise into repute after the 
time of Augustin. Attachment to Plato and his system 
diminishes in proportion to the increasing unpopularity 
of Origen. 

440 Leo I. or The Great, Patriarch of Rome, 
remarkable for his extension of the power of the Romish 
see, — his opposition to the claims of the patriarch of Con- 
stantinople, — and his successful defence of the orthodox faith. 

441 Council of Orange, under Hilary as Metropolitan. 
The acts of this council indicate remarkable discre- 
pancies between the ecclesiastical observances of Rome 
and Gaul. 

During the early part of this century, disputes among the 
Gallican bishops, followed by reference to Rome, contribute to 
advance the influence of the Roman see. 

Right of asylum conferred upon churches in France by 
the Council of Orange. 



44S2 Huns, under Attila, threaten Constantinople ; Theodo- 

sius buys them off, by consenting to double the annual 
tribute already paid. 

Predestination. 
Some adherents of Augustin's system (e.g. Leo) are 
now disposed to teach the doctrines of free grace gener- 



Period.) to the death of Gregory the first. 103 

ally, without giving prominence to the tenets relating 
to predestination. Others state the latter doctrine broad- 
ly, and without due moderation or caution. 



Sedulius, Claudius, Marius Victor, and Dracontius, 
Christian poets, fl. 



* Pelagianism had now made great progress in Britain. 
About this time, two Gallic bishops, Germanus and Lupus, 
were called over to assist in refuting and suppressing this 
scheme of doctrine. 



* Some suppose that the Gallican Liturgy, of Oriental 
origin, was introduced into the British Churches by the 
bishops who came over to assist in refuting Pelagian doc- 
trines. 

Dioscurus, a violent man, patriarch of Alexandria. By a 
council (probably at Besancon) under Hilary, Celidonius 
is deposed. Celidonius goes to Rome, where Leo receives 
him to communion, and orders his restoration. 

Leo I. appoints Anastasius, Bishop of Thessalonica, 
as his vicar in Illyricum. 

| Cyril of Alexandria. 

Valentinian III. enacts that all bishops of the Western 
Empire should obey the Bishop of Rome, and should be 
bound to appear before him at his summons, as Rector 
totius Ecclesige, possessing supreme authority by virtue 
of "Petri meritum, jura urbis, et synodum (Sardic.)." 
Severe edict against the Manichees. 

Leo issues a sentence of excommunication and deposi- 
tion against Hilary, Bishop of Aries — thus usurping 
jurisdiction over Gallic Churches. 

Leo claims jurisdiction over the bishops of Africa. 
He assumes a tone of superiority also in a letter to 
Dioscurus, Bishop of Alexandria. 

The supreme authority of the bishops of Rome was 
not yet generally acknowledged in the West ; much less 
in the East. 

h 4 



104 FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL (Second 

446 * Conference at Verulam between Orthodox and Pela- 

gians. 

Union of two natures in Christ. 

In Egypt attempts were still made to establish the 
Alexandrian doctrines concerning the person of Christ, 
in opposition to those of Antioch; while in Syria a 
struggle was maintained against the so-called Monophy- 
sites of Egypt. 

Eutyches, an abbot of Constantinople, maintains that 
there was only one nature in Christ after his incarna- 
tion. Hence his followers were called Monophysites or 
Eutychians ; and thus begins the Eutychian Controversy. 



447 Leo forbids the Sicilian bishops to baptize on the Fes- 

tival of the Epiphany, and enjoins the administration of 
the rite at Easter and Whitsuntide only. 

The Seven Sleepers said to awake after a sleep of about 
two hundred years. 



448 Theodosius makes peace with the Huns, under promise 

of paying a heavy tribute, and with other humiliating 
conditions. 

t Vincent of Lerins. 



Council of Constantinople, under Flavian. Eutyches 
condemned and deposed, notwithstanding that Dioscurus, 
Patriarch of Alexandria, and the Empress Eudocia, espouse 
his cause. 

449 Council of Ephesus, without the Antiochenian bishops, 

called the Synod of Bobbers, proclaims Eutyches orthodox, 
and restores him to his dignity. Flavian, Theodoret, and 
other bishops, deposed. Proceedings of the council marked 
by violence, and even force of arms, whence its appel- 
lation. 

Temporary triumph of Monophysites in the East. 
Council at Rome declares the acts of the Council of 
Ephesus invalid. 



Period,) to the death of Gregory the first. 105 

Philoxenus, Bishop of Hierapolis in Syria. Syriac 
I translation of the New Testament. 

\ Hilary, Bishop of Aries. \ Isidore of Pelusium. 



Marcian, Emp. East. 

Valentinian III. still reigns in the West. 
# Anglo Saxons land in England under Hengist and 
Horsa. 

f Eucherius, Bishop of Lyons. Moral Treatises. 

Differences between Jews and Christians confirmed and 
augmented. 

The completion of the Babylonian Talmud, which is a 
bulwark of modern Judaism ; the introduction of religious 
veneration of saints and relics in the Christian Church ; 
disputes concerning the divine nature, which had long ex- 
isted among Christians ; and severities exercised against 
themselves, — had contributed to confirm the Jews in their 
prejudices against the Gospel and its adherents. 



Pictures in churches. During this century, the use of 
pictures in churches, as a means of exciting devotion, be- 
comes general, not without some admixture of superstition. 

Infant Baptism had now become general. 

The Council of Chalcedon made some good canons re- 
specting the discipline of the clergy, and against bribery 
and corruption, in the matter of their ordination and ap- 
pointment. 

# Monastery of Bangor founded about this time. 

The avarice and rapacity of the clergy had now reached 
an enormous height, as appears from a treatise of Salvian, 
" Adversus Avaritiam," which is, in fact, a defence of 
ecclesiastical avarice. 

Alms are now generally regarded as a means of pur- 
chasing forgiveness of sins. 

Marriage of the clergy discountenanced by successive 
synods; e.g. Orange, 441; Aries, 452; Angers, 453; 
Tours, 461 ; Vannes, 465. 



106 



451 



FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL {Second 

The bishops of Rome recommend and promote clerical 
celibacy. 

Irruption of the Huns under Attila into Gaul. 
Valentinian and Marcian publish an edict forbidding 
all persons, under penalty of confiscation of their property, 
to enter or resort to Heathen temples for the purposes of 
worship. 

Flavian and his friends having sought the support of 
Leo the Great, who had given his opinion against the 
Eutychian doctrines, and pointed out the true medium 
between those tenets and Nestorianism, appeal was made 
to a new council to be regularly convened. Hence, 

Council of Chalcedon (Fourth General), 
convened by the Emperor Marcian. Doctrines of 
Eutyches and Nestorius condemned as heretical. The 
bishop of Constantinople declared to possess equal rights 
and privileges with the bishop of Rome, and to be the 
second in rank. The bishops of Rome, Constantinople, 
Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem, recognised as pa- 
triarchs of the Universal Church. Acts of the late Council 
of Ephesus annulled ; and Dioscurus, who had presided in 
it, deposed and banished. 

The Council of Chalcedon determined the Catholic 
Faith to be, that, in the person of Christ, the two natures, 
divine and human, are inseparably united, but without 
confusion. More particularly, that the one Son of God, 
Christ, is of one substance with the Father according to 
his Godhead, and with men in all things, sin only ex- 
cepted, according to his manhood; and that this one 
Christ subsists in two natures, which are united without 
confusion or division. Accordingly, by this council, Euty- 
chianism (the confounding of the Godhead and manhood 
in one nature), and Nestorianism (the dividing of the 
Godhead and manhood into two persons), were equally 
condemned. 

Nestorian doctrines are propagated in Syria and 
Armenia by the Abbot Barsymas. 



Period.) to the death of Gregory the first. 107 

451 (Proclus succeeds Syrianus at Athens as professor of 

the Eclectic Philosophy.) 



Attila devastates the north of Italy. (Refugees con- 
tribute to the foundation of Venice.) 

Leo persuades Attila to retire from Italy without 
attacking Rome. 

Proterius, Patriarch of Alexandria, irritates the dissa- 
tisfied Monophysite party, at the head of whom are a 
presbyter, Timothy iElurus, and a deacon, Peter Mongus. 
* Pelagians banished from Britain. 



Death of Attila. Soon after his death his kingdom 
was weakened by internal dissensions, and the Huns 
retired to the border of the Black Sea and their old 
Asiatic territory. 

Valentinian kills his general Aetius. 



# About this time many of the Irish were converted to 
Christianity by means of Patrick. Several new bishoprics 
were erected in England. 



Faustus, Bishop of Rhegium. 



Valentinian III. killed by Maximus, in revenge for his 
adultery. 

Maximus, first, and, after his death, Avitus, Emp. West. 

Marcian still reigns in the East. 

Vandals, under Genseric, plunder Rome. 

Leo I. prevails upon Genseric not to destroy Rome 

with fire and sword. Genseric takes away, among other 

treasures, the sacred vessels which Titus had brought 

from Jerusalem. 

Visigoths establish their dominion in Spain. 



f Theodoret. J Petrus Chrysologus. 
f Ibas, Bishop of Edessa. 



108 FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL (Second 

457 (457.) Timothy iElurus (Eutychian) forcibly gains pos- 

session of the patriarchate of Alexandria ; the Catholic 
patriarch, Proterius, murdered. 



458 



459 



460 



461 



Leo the Thracian, Emp. East. 
Majorian, Emp. West. 



The Abbot Severinus propagates the Gospel in Bavaria. 



Leo recommends private confession of sins to a priest, in 
preference to public confession. This practice of private 
confession contributed to increase the influence of the 
clergy to a dangerous extent. 



The Emperor Leo collects the subscriptions of the 
Eastern bishops to the canons of the late Council of Chal- 
cedon ; of these, sixteen demand an explanation of the 
phrase " two natures." 

Timothy JElurus banished from Alexandria, upon the 
interference of the emperor. Timothy Salophacialus, a 
judicious and moderate Catholic, made patriarch in his 
room. Peace for a time in the Church of Egypt, 
(al. 455. al. 439.) * Patrick, Bishop of Armagh. 

#■ Saxons dominant in England. 

Majorian dethroned by Ricimer. 

Severus, Emp. West. 

Leo the Thracian is still emperor of the East. 



t Simeon Stylites, the Elder. Prosper of Aquitaine, 
private secretary to Leo L, a Christian epigrammatist. 



Hilary, Patriarch of Rome, claims the primacy of 
St. Peter. Interferes in the affairs of the Gallican 
Churches. Refers to the decree of Valentinian, enacting 
that all bishops should submit to regulations made by the 
bishop of Rome. 



Period.) to the death of Gregory the first. 109 

Hilary founds two libraries in the baptistery of the 
Lateran Church at Rome. 

This is the first mention in history of libraries be- 
longing to Roman bishops ; such however, no doubt, had 
already been formed. 



Monachism. — A monastery (studium) built at Constan- 
tinople for the a^o/^yjTOi, watchers, — a class of Cenobites, 
who professed to keep up a continual course of divine 
worship, day and night. 

Peter the Fuller, a Monophysite monk of Constanti- 
nople, made patriarch of Antioch, where he occasions dis- 
turbances by adding to the Trisagium the words " who 
was crucified for us." 

Hilary reprimands Mamertus, Bishop of Vienne, for 
having acted as metropolitan within the limits of the pro- 
vince assigned by himself to the bishop of Aries. 

Hilary, in a council at Rome, decides authoritatively 
some affairs of Spanish Churches, concerning which cer- 
tain bishops of that country had sought his opinion and 
advice. 



Severus murdered. Ricimer rules the West. 



Anthemius, Emp. West. 
Leo the Thracian still reigns in the East. 



It is said, but upon slight authority, that Anthemius 
at one time meditated the restoration of Heathen super- 
stition. But, about this time, Anthemius and Leo pub- 
lished a severe edict against the performance of Heathen 
rites ; enacting that if any man should perform such rites 
upon another's estate, or in his house, with the know- 
ledge of the owner, the property of the latter should be 
confiscated, and himself should be deprived of his civil 
rank ; or, if of no rank, should suffer corporal punishment, 
and either be sent to the mines, or at least condemned 
to perpetual exile. 



HO FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL (Second 

About this time, it was ordained that the revenues of 
churches should be divided into four parts (varying, per- 
haps, in their relative proportions) ; namely, one for the 
bishop, another for the rest of the clergy, the third for 
maintaining the fabric of the church, and the fourth for 
the benefit of the poor. 
469 Leo and Anthemius prohibit the obtaining of bishop- 

rics by purchase. 

Solemn processions, called Rogations or Litanies, insti- 
tuted about this time by Mamertus, Bishop of Vienne. 



Faustus protests against both the doctrine of Predestin- 
ation (as it had been taught by Augustin) and the errors 
of Pelagius. 

471 Peter the Fuller, Patriarch of Antioch, banished, 

f Paul Orosius, friend and pupil of Augustin. 
Sidonius Apollinaris, Bishop of Clermont, fl. 



47^ Ricimer takes and plunders Rome. 

Olybrius, Emp. West. 
Leo the Thracian continues Emperor of the East. 
Death of Ricimer. 



Acacius, Patriarch of Constantinople, contends vehemently 
with Simplicius for his equality of privilege and rights, as 
established by the twenty-eighth canon of the Council of 
Chalcedon. 

Advance of the Patriarchate. 

Archbishops (in part) supply the place of metropoli- 
tans. Higher orders of clergy oppress the lower; and 
the rights of the people lost. 

To the superior orders of clergy are added, Patriarch's 
Vicars, Archpriests, Archdeacons, Abbots and Archi- 
mandrites (the monks now beginning to reckon them- 
selves among the clergy). 



Period.) to the death of Gregory the first. Ill 

The ecclesiastical learning of the times exerts an unfa- 
vourable influence upon general literature, and holds it in 
check. 



Glycerius, Emp. West. 



f Claudianus Mamertus, a presbyter of Vienne. 



Leo III., and afterwards Zeno, Emp. East. 
Julius Nepos, Emp. West. 



Romulus Augustulus, Emp. West. 



Fresh Monophysite disturbances in Egypt. 
Semipelagians. 
(475.) At the Councils of Aries and Lyons, the Pres- 
byter Lucidus, a promoter of the strict Augustinian 
system, was compelled to retract his opinions; and the 
Semipelagian system of Faustus, Bishop of Rhegium, was 
sanctioned as orthodox. 

In Africa and Italy the Augustinian system is re- 
tained. 

Odoacer, general of the Heruli, defeats and deposes 
Romulus. 

End of the Western Roman Empire. 

Odoacer, King of Italy and Noricum. 

Basilic us, Emp. East, 

after the Deposition of Zeno. 



Timothy iElurus again Monophysite Patriarch of 
Alexandria. Succeeded by Peter Mongus. 



Catholics in Africa persecuted by the Vandals. 



Zeno, Emp. East, restored. 



112 FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL (Second 

Zeno destroyed a Heathen temple, which had remained 
near Constantinople. He caused the Samaritans to be 
driven from Mount Gerizim, and a church, dedicated to 
the " Mother of God," to be built on its summit. Some 
of the Samaritans embrace Christianity. 



477 
478 



Monophysite patriarchs of Alexandria and Antioch 
expelled. 

Death of the patriarch of Alexandria : — the Catholic 
party elect as his successor John Talaja; the Monophy- 
sites, Peter Mongus. The latter, by the aid of Acacius, 
Patriarch of Constantinople, and the Emperor, confirmed 
in his dignity. Peter's plan for the union of parties. 

Zeno endeavoured to promote peace between the con- 
flicting religious sects of his day. 



About this time great complaints were made concerning 
the vices of the clergy. 

Gelasius of Cyzicum composes a History of the Council 
of Nicaea. 



430 Simplicius, Patriarch of Rome, appoints Zeno, Bishop 

of Seville, his vicar in Spain. 



Benedict born at Nursia in Umbria. 
Boethius, ten years old, sent to Athens to study. 



481 Clovis, King of the Franks. 



48f2 Zeno publishes his Henoticon, or Decree of Union, de- 

signed to reconcile the Catholics and Monophysites. The 
decree was approved and promoted by Acacius, Patriarch 
of Constantinople. Mongus subscribed the decree, which 
required disputants to abstain from all controverted 
terms, in stating the doctrine concerning the person of 
Christ. Violent Monophysites in Egypt withdraw from 
communion with the Patriarch Mongus (a*e$aAo/). 
Friends of the Chalcedonian Council suspect an intention 



Period.) to the death of Gregory the first. 118 

to favour the Monophysite doctrine. Great disturbances 
in connexion with this question during the reigns of 
Zeno and his successors. 

j" Severinus, Apostle of Noricum. 



On occasion of the election of Felix as patriarch of 
Rome, Basil, prime minister of Odoacer, claims on behalf 
of the king a right of interference in such elections. 
(Afterwards protested against by Council of Rome, 
a.d. 502.) 

Conference of Catholic and Arian bishops at Carthage. 

Felix, in a council at Rome, condemns, deposes, and 
excommunicates Acacius, Patriarch of Constantinople; 
who, in return, excommunicates Felix. 

From this time to 5 1 9, no communion between the Eastern 
and Western Churches, 



T Salvian. f Faustus, Bishop of Rhegium. 

Peter the Fuller subscribes the Henoticon; again 
admitted as patriarch of Antioch. 



f Barsumas, Bishop of Nisibis. 
(j Proclus, an Eclectic philosopher.) 
iEneas of Gaza, a Christian philosopher, fl. 
Vigilius, Bishop of Thapsus, writes against Arian and 
Nestorian tenets. He is supposed by some to have com- 
posed the Athanasian Creed. 

Clovis destroys the remains of Roman power in Gaul, 
and founds the monarchy of the Franks. 

The Franks, at the time of their irruption into Gaul, 
were Heathens. 



Theodoric and the Ostrogoths enter Italy. 

"(" Peter the Fuller, f Sidonius Apollinaris. 
The Monophysites now obtain the aid of two able 
leaders, Philoxenus, Bishop of Hierapolis in Syria; and 
Severus, a monk, afterwards patriarch of Constantinople. 



114 FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL (SeCOTld 

489 I Acacius, Patriarch of Constantinople. 



Age of 

Ambition, Usurpation. 

and Contention. 



491 Anastasius, Emp. East. 

Anastasius accorded equal rights and privileges to the 
Catholics, Eutychians, and all other religious parties in 
his empire. He deposed turbulent and quarrelsome 
bishops of various sects. 



Gennadius continues Jerome's List of Ecclesiastical 
Writers. 

(Marcianus Capella, fl.). 

Andreas, Bishop of Csesarea in Cappadocia; Com- 
mentary on the Revelation of St. John. 



493 Theodoric, King of the Ostrogoths, conquers Odoacer, 
and becomes king of Italy, Sicily, Provence, the South of 
Germany, Hungary, and Dalmatia. Resides at Ravenna. 

He restores prosperity to Italy. 

Theodoric, himself an Arian, tolerant of the Catholics. 
Throughout his reign he grants protection also to the 
Jews. 

f Gennadius. 
Cassiodorus, fl. 

494 Gelasius, in a council at Home, asserts that the primacy 
of the Roman see is founded, not on the decrees of councils, 
hut on the divine authority of our Lord's appointment 
[Thou art Peter, Sfc). Alexandria declared to be the second 
church, and Antioch the third, in dignity. 

The Council of Rome, under Gelasius, distinguishes 
between the canonical books of Scripture and apocryphal 
books. It also appoints certain writings of the Fathers, 
&c. to be read, and prohibits others. The genuineness 
of this decree is doubted. Probably, as it exists, it is 
interpolated. 



Period.) to the death of Gregory the first. 115 

N.B. The canon of Gelasius is substantially the same 
as that of Augustin and the Council of Carthage. 

Communion in both kinds, 
Gelasius (writing against the Manichees) strongly 
asserts that the Lord's supper cannot be rightly received 
by partaking of the bread only. He declares the dividing 
of the mystery to be an act of sacrilege. 



Some refer the institution of the order of Canons 
Regular of St. Augustin to this date. 

Clovis, King of the Franks, baptized by Remigius, 
Bishop of Rheims. 

Dominion of the Franks contributes to the extension of the 
Catholic Church. 



"J" Gelasius. 



Anastasius II., Patriarch of Rome, disposed to moderate 
the claims of his see with reference to Constantinople. 
Opposed herein by many of his clergy. 



After the death of Anastasius II., Symmachus and 
Laurentius are severally elected as his successors by two 
rival parties. The contest involves great disorder and 
bloodshed. Theodoric declares in favour of Symmachus. 

Council at Rome, concerning election of patriarchs to 
the see. 

The whole Persian Church, in a council, declares its 
adoption of Nestorian doctrines. 



(Stobaeus, Charisius, fL). 

During this century, the doctrines of Scripture re- 
specting the person and nature of Christ, — original sin, 

free will, — the operation and means of divine grace, 

were enforced and illustrated by many valuable definitions, 
proofs, and explanations. 



116 FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL (Second 



End of B u t writers of this age (orthodox Fathers) laid the 
Fifth foundation of various errors, such as — False doctrines 

concerning departed saints, the fable of purgatory, the 

fictitious authority of apocryphal books. 



Cen- 
tury. 



The Agapae, or Feasts of Charity, have been discon- 
tinued. 

The daily celebration of mass (the Lord's supper) had 
now become general in the West. It was consequently 
often performed by the priest alone. 

Veneration for martyrs and saints succeeded by actual 
adoration. Frequent pilgrimages to their tombs. In- 
creased importance of relics. These superstitious prac- 
tices of the people were countenanced and promoted by 
the clergy and monks. 

Of the new rites and ceremonies, institutions, or 
customs, introduced during this century, the following are 
the principal : — Raised pulpits in churches ; litanies ; the 
Trisagion ; rogation days ; the chanting of creeds. 

And others of a more objectionable character ; such as 
— The worship of the Virgin Mary (promoted by the 
Nestorian controversies) ; increased pomp and splendour 
of vestments, &c. used during divine service ; the con- 
secration of tapers to be used in churches ; private con- 
fession. 

Three conflicting parties in the Church : one contending 
for the Henoticon without the Council of Chalcedon ; 
another for the Henoticon and the Council ; a third in 
favour of the Council without the Henoticon. 

Patriarchs of Rome and Constantinople engaged in 
continual disputes respecting the extent and limits of their 
respective jurisdictions. 

502 A council at Rome repeals the laws of Odoacer respect- 
ing the election of the bishop of Rome and the property 
of the Church. 

503 Council at Rome (Synodus Palmaris), convened by 
Theodoric, concerning some charges brought against 
Symmachus. Symmachus acquitted, and confirmed in 



Period.) to the death of Gregory the first. 117 

his dignity. Ennodius writes a defence of this synod, 
in which he bestows immoderate panegyrics on the Roman 
patriarch, and from which it appears that the founda- 
tion of the Papal power was already laid. In another 
council this work is approved, and the proposition main- 
tained, that the bishop of Rome is not amenable to any 
human authority, and can be judged by none but God. 

Western bishops manifest a disposition to acknowledge 
the patriarch of Rome as their head and governor, ap- 
parently with a view to consolidate and increase the power 
of the Church, as a body, against the temporal princes, 
many of whom were Arians. 

Defensores. 
By order of Anastasius (505), certain persons, chosen 
from the Orthodox, having professed their faith on oath in 
the presence of a bishop, were specially charged with the 
defence of the faith. They were entitled, from the nature 
of their office, Defensores. 



The acts of the Synodus Palmaris (503) indicate a 
subjection of the Roman patriarchs and councils to the 
sovereign prince. 

Thrasamund (Arian), King of the Vandals, banishes 
more than two hundred Catholic bishops of Africa, 
for having consecrated bishops contrary to his command. 
Symmachus receives and maintains the banished bishops. 

Clovis, having by a course of treachery and cruelty 
established his sovereignty over all the Franks, pays great 
respect to the clergy, and is zealous for the propagation of 
Christianity throughout his dominions. 

Conversion of the Franks. 
This people, like their prince, repeated and assented to 
a creed which they did not understand ; they were amused 
by a splendid, or at least imposing, ceremonial ; listened 
with wonder to fabulous legends and reports of pretended 
miracles ; paid a blind veneration and deference to the 
clergy; performed penance, and gave large gifts to 
churches and monasteries ; and remained, as they for- 

i 3 



118 FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL (SeCOTld 

merly had been, a barbarous, ferocious, and licentious 
people. Such, alas ! was the conversion of the Franks. 

Clovis, during his reign, sent a royal crown of gold, 
set with precious stones, as a present to " the Apostle 
Peter." Theodoric also made presents to the Roman 
Church. 

Under pretence of zeal for the Catholic religion, Clovis 
now makes war upon the (Arian) Visigoths in Gaul. 



Celibacy of the clergy, — At this period, the liberty of 
the clergy with respect to marriage appears to have been 
but little abridged, if at all, in the East. 

Number and influence of monks continually on the 
increase. Profligacy generally prevails in the monas- 
teries of the West ; fanaticism in those of the East, jg 

506 The Council of Agde (held by permission of Alaric, 
the Arian king of the Visigoths) forbids the multiplica- 
tion of monasteries? and makes many canons respecting 
the discipline of the clergy? — a subject which occupied the 
attention of many provincial councils about this time. It 
enacts that every member of the Church shall receive the 
Lord's supper at least three times in every year, namely, 
on the high festivals. 

507 Clovis defeats and kills Alaric II. King of the Visigoths. 
Gaul is now in undisputed possession of the Franks. 



510 Severus, a monk, opposed to the decision of the Council 

of Chalcedon, goes to Constantinople with a large body 
of adherents, and procures the deposition of the patriarch 
of that city. 

The king of Persia (Cabades) favours the Christians, 
who are said to have miraculously assisted him in recover- 
ing a treasure. 



Barbarism of the Middle Ages begins. 
Irruptions of the Barbarians into the West during this 
century very prejudicial to the interests of literature. 



Period.) to the death of Gregory the first. 119 

Learning preserved in the bishops* schools and monas- 
teries. Here arts and sciences were taught very imper- 
fectly ; but great attention was bestowed upon the reading 
of the earlier ecclesiastical writers. The works of ancient 
authors preserved in the libraries of the monasteries ; but 
the libraries of monks and churchmen were composed 
chiefly of ecclesiastical and ascetic works. Greek litera- 
ture generally neglected; Latin poorly cultivated ; rhetoric 
turned into bombast ; liberal arts comprised within a few 
barren rules ; study of philosophy abandoned and decried. 

This barbarism almost extinguishes the light and life 
of Christianity; as the influence of the Church, in the 
course of its previous corruption, had already suppressed 
ancient literature. 

Boethius, privy counsellor to Theodoric, King of the 
Ostrogoths, explains and recommends the Aristotelian 
philosophy ; which hence rises in credit. 

(The Masora, or Jewish criticism of the Hebrew text 
of the Old Testament, begun by the Rabbins of Ti- 
berias.) 

Doctrine of the Existence of God, 
Augustin was the first who attempted to demonstrate 
this fact, or to prove it by reason. He endeavoured (in 
the manner of Plato) to deduce it from our ideas of per- 
fect truth and wisdom. Boethius also (after the Stoics) 
sought to prove the existence of God, the supreme good, 
from our ideas of absolute perfection. 

Doctrines of Grace and Predestination, 
The Augustinian system now begins to find more 
acceptance in Gaul. Caesar, Archbishop of Aries, espe- 
cially pleads in its favour. 



Death of Clovis. First partition of the kingdom of the 
Franks: — Theodoric I. at Metz; Chlodomirat Orleans; 
Childebert at Paris ; Clotaire at Soissons. 

Clovis had been a great patron of the clergy ; had built 
and endowed many churches and monasteries; was the 

i 4 



120 FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL (Second 

founder of the French Church, as distinguished from the 
old Gallican ; and was entitled " The Son of the Catholic 
Church,"— "The Great,"— and, by some, "The Pious." 



516 



517 



511 By the Council of Orleans, laymen were forbidden to 
take holy orders without the command of the king, or the 
consent of some civil magistrate. 

The Council of Orleans makes regulations respecting 
clerical discipline; and establishes the use of litanies or 
rogations in France. 

512 Sever us and other Monophysite monks attempt to in- 
troduce at Constantinople the words "who was crucified 
for us," as an addition to the Trisagion, which had already 
been done by Peter the Fuller at Antioch. The emperor 
at first favours Severus and his party. 

Violent religious commotions disturb the Eastern em- 
pire. The Emperor Anastasius, refusing to give exclusive 
support to the Orthodox, is regarded as a heretic and a 
persecutor. 

Insurrection of Vitalian, who lays siege to Constantinople. 
514 In consequence of the insurrection of Vitalian, Anas- 
tasius is compelled to declare in favour of the Council of 
Chalcedon. 

Christianity is now more widely spread, and more 
firmly established, than heretofore, in many parts of Ger- 
many and Switzerland. 



The Slavi begin to spread themselves over Europe. 

By the Council of Tarragona bishops were permitted 
to associate with themselves in council a certain number 
of laymen as well as presbyters of their dioceses. Per- 
haps these laymen were not allowed to vote. 



Sigismund, King of the Burgundians, renounces 
Arianism, and conforms to the Catholic Church. The 
labours of Avitus had probably contributed to this 
result. 



Period.) to the death of Gregory the first. 121 

517 The Council of Lyons inflicts ecclesiastical censure on 

a Burgundian nobleman who had married within the 
prohibited degrees. 

Justin I. Emp. East. 
Justin repeals the Henoticon, and gives effect to the decrees 
of the Council of Chalcedon. 

Justin deprives reputed heretics of their churches 
(except, at first, the Arians, by virtue of his treaty with 
Theodoric). 
Peace restored between the Eastern and Western Churches. 



The Gothic and German princes retain their dominion 
over the clergy of all degrees, but support them with 
their favour, and contribute to the exaltation of their 
power. 

About this time, regulations were frequently made 
concerning the withdrawal of the clergy from the juris- 
diction of the civil magistrate. 



Zacharias Scholasticus, Bishop of Mitylene in Lesbos, a 
Christian philosopher, fl. 



War with Persia. 

The Monarchy of the Bishop of Rome 

gradually supersedes 

the Oligarchy 

of 

the Patriarchate. 

Tlxe title of Pope begins to be exclusively applied to the 
bishop of Home. 

Monophgsite Controversies. 

Many Monophysite bishops who were deposed during 

this reign repaired to Alexandria. Here arose dissensions 

among the Monophysites themselves ; some asserting the 

corruptibility of our Saviour's body (Phthartolatrae, or 



122 FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL (Second 

Severians, from Severus), and others insisting upon its 
incorruptibility (Aphthartodocetse, Phantasiasts, or Julian- 
ists, from Julian, Bishop of Halicarnassus). The Phthar- 
tolatrse produced the Agnoetas, or (from Themistius, a 
deacon of Alexandria) Themistians, who maintained that 
many things were unknown to Christ according to his 
human nature. The AphthartoJatrse again divided into 
the Actistetae, who held that the body of Christ was un- 
created, and the Ktistolatraa, who affirmed the contrary. 



521 * Saxon Heptarchy in England in course of formation. 



t Ennodius, Bishop of Pavia. 
523 t Hormisdas, Roman Patriarch. 



524} Justin, by an edict, deprives the Arians of their 

churches in the East. Theodoric demands the restoration 
of these churches, threatening to withdraw his toleration 
of the Orthodox in Italy in case of refusal. 

525 John I. goes to Constantinople at the instance of 

Theodoric, and obtains the restoration of the churches to 
the Arians. When he approached Constantinople, the 
emperor, and almost the whole city, came out to meet 
him, bearing wax tapers and crosses : the emperor pro- 
strated himself on the ground, and did homage. He also 
caused himself to be crowned by the patriarch. (Some 
say, that John urged Justin to retain possession of the 
Arian churches.) 



About this time, Dionysius the Less compiled his col- 
lection of the ancient canons, and of the decretal epistles 
of the popes from Siricius (384). 

Boethius put to death, — a Roman patriot and Christian 
philosopher. His zeal for Orthodoxy against the Arians 
probably favoured the unfounded charge of his having 
maintained a treasonable understanding with Justin, Em- 
peror of the East. 

| Alcimus Avitus, Bishop of Vienne, a Christian poet, 



Period.) to the death of Gregory the first. 123 

Athalaric, King of the Ostrogoths. 



John I. dies in prison. Disputes respecting the election 
of his successor. Felix III., Patriarch of Rome, appointed 
by the interference of Theodoric. 



About this time, several councils made regulations con- 
cerning ecclesiastical discipline. 

The Festival of the Purification of the Virgin Mary was 
established probably about this time, to supply the place 
of the Lupercalia, a heathen festival lately abolished. 



Justinian, Emp. East. 

During this reign, the Eastern empire advanced to a 
high degree of power and splendour, chiefly by means of 
the successes of the emperor's generals. 

In the West, the Franks subdue the Alemanni, Ba- 
varians, and Thuringians. 

Justinian destroys the remnants of Paganism in his empire 
generally. 

Some individuals, however, continued to retain, and 
even to profess, their attachment to the ancient super- 
stition. Several writers employ their pen against Christ- 
ianity during this century. 

Many forced, and therefore insincere or partial, con- 
versions to Christianity in the East during this reign, 
arising from the measures of Justinian for the suppression 
of idolatry, such as the burning of heathen books, de- 
struction of images, penal statutes, imprisonment and 
flogging of the professors of Heathenism. 

* Persecution, and gradual suppression, of Christianity in 
England under the Anglo Saxons. 

I Procopius of Gaza. 

Justinian enacts, that when the bishopric of any town 
becomes vacant, the inhabitants shall nominate three 
persons, and then elect one of that number as bishop ; 
that no one shall be eligible to the office who may have 



124 FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL (Second 

children to provide for; and that no ecclesiastical ap- 
pointments whatever shall be procured by purchase. 
Bishops and metropolitans forbidden to leave their dio- 
ceses or provinces without special licence or command, 
5%9 Justinian (reviving and extending a law of Honorius) 

requires the bishop of every city to visit the prisons 
weekly, and to take cognizance of the condition and 
treatment of the prisoners, and associates them with the 
local magistrates in the administration of various civil 
affairs. 



Pelagians and Semipelagians. 

The Augustinian system of doctrine established in 
Gaul by the Council of Orange, in opposition at once to 
Pelagian and Semipelagian tenets. The decree of the 
council was confirmed by the Council of Valentia, same 
year, and by Boniface in 530. 

Final triumph of the Augustinian or Church doctrines 
concerning Grace and Predestination over Semipelagian 
tenets. 

Monachism. 

Benedict of Nursia establishes his monastic rules and 
institutes. His intention was " to form an order whose 
discipline should be milder, their establishment more 
solid, and their manners more regular than those of other 
monastic bodies ; and whose members, during the course 
of a holy and peaceful life, were to divide their time 
between prayer, reading, the education of youth, and 
other learned and pious labours." He distributed his 
monks into twelve monasteries, of which that on Mount 
Casino, in Campania, was the most celebrated. His rules 
demanded that every monk should pass through a period 
of probation (novitiate) ; that all should be bound by 
oath to a perpetual residence in their monastery, — to 
render implicit obedience to their superior, — to live in ac- 
cordance with prescribed law, — and to occupy themselves 
in study or manual labour, especially in agriculture. 
Benedict also prescribed the education of youth as an 
especial duty. 



Period.) to the death of Gregory the first. 125 

This reformation soon spread beyond Italy, to Gaul, 
Spain, and other countries. 

(Justinian's Code published; Codex Repetitce Pr&lectionis.) 
In the schools of monasteries, youths were trained to 
become monks rather than scholars ; but from this time 
literature was, to a certain extent, encouraged amongst 
the monks, who had hitherto been taught to despise it, 
and especially to avoid the use of ancient (profane) 
authors. 

Theological instruction was generally confined to the 
act of training the junior clergy to the performance of 
public offices of religion, and the committing of portions 
of Scripture to memory. Parish priests were ordered to 
keep the young unmarried readers in their houses, and 
give them such instruction. 

Decline of Modern Platonism. 
That system was gradually replaced by the Aristotelian 
philosophy, which was especially patronised by the Mono- 
physites and Nestorians. The schools of Athens were 
closed by an edict of Justinian in 529. 



Boniface, Patriarch of Rome, after a contested election. 
Great bribery and corruption now practised in the elections 
to this see. Roman senate passed a decree against these 
malpractices. 

Dispute between the patriarchs of Rome and Constantinople 
revived, on occasion of an appeal from Stephen, Metro- 
politan of Larissa, to Boniface, against the sentence of 
Epiphanius, Patriarch of Constantinople. It appears that 
Stephen was eventually deposed, notwithstanding this 
appeal. 

(Chosroes I. King of Persia.) 

Gothic kings in Italy assert and exercise the right of 
sanctioning the appointment, and confirming the elec- 
tion, of the patriarchs of Rome and subordinate bishops. 
Rates of payment for such confirmation. Justinian enacts 
that no one who has filled a civil office shall be eligible to 
the rank of bishop or presbyter in the Church. 



126 FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL (Second 

532 f Boniface. Contests and great corruption at the elec- 
tion of a successor. 

Justinian sanctions as orthodox the formula " God 
(one person of the Trinity) was crucified in the flesh." 

533 First mention of the forged writings attributed to 
Dionysius the Areopagite, made this year, in course of a 
conference at Constantinople. 



During this reign, Christianity is embraced by the 
Abasgi, between the Euxine and Mount Caucasus ; the 
Heruli, beyond the Danube ; the Alans, Lazi, Zani, and 
other uncivilised tribes. Many Jews also embrace the 
Gospel in the East. Justinian enacts that no Jew should 
be allowed to give testimony in civil causes against the 
Orthodox. 

Cosmas Indicopleustes, in his Christian Topography, 
speaks of Christian churches at three places in the East 
Indies; namely, on the island Taprobane (Ceylon), on 
the coast of the Pepper Island (probably Malabar), and 
at Calliana. 

Kingdom of the Vandals in Africa distracted by eccle- 
siastical differences. 

In France, Christians are forbidden to intermarry with 
Jews, by the second Council of Orleans. 

534f Justinian made various laws respecting the condition 

and qualification of persons eligible to the several orders 
of the clergy; concerning the payment of fees, &c. on 
institution ; and the age of ecclesiastical officers. (Lowest 
age of a presbyter, 35 years ; of a deacon or subdeacon, 
25; of a reader, 18; of a deaconess, 40.) 

In 534 he commits to the bishops the execution of 
certain restrictions relating to the management of stage- 
plays ; reproves the propensity of many of the clergy to 
gaming and theatrical amusements ; and forbids deacons, 
presbyters, and bishops, to play at dice. 

Growth of superstition in the Church, arising from the 
rapacity of the clergy, and the ignorance which generally 
prevailed. An opinion was propagated with industry 
among the people, that the remission of sins was to be 






Period.) to the death of Gregory the first. 127 

purchased by liberal gifts to churches and monasteries, 
and that the efficacious prayers of departed saints were 
to be bought by offerings presented to the Church. 



536 



Conquests of Belisarius in Africa, Sardinia, and Corsica. 
Power of the Vandals destroyed, and Africa reunited to 
the empire of the East. 
534, Theodahat, King of the Ostrogoths. 

Kingdom of the Burgundians overthrown by the 
Franks. 

Justinian pays tribute to the Bulgarians, and to Persia. 



535 Theodora, Justinian's queen, favours the Eutychians. 

By her influence, Anthimus, a Monophysite, was made 
patriarch of Constantinople. 



Wars of Justinian against the Ostrogoths in Italy until 
553, when their kingdom is destroyed. 

Vitiges, King of the Ostrogoths. 

Belisarius takes Rome, which remains in the power of 
the Greeks until 541. 

Cassiodorus, seconded by Agapetus, projects the found- 
ation of a theological school at Rome, in which candidates 
for the ministry should be educated by paid teachers or 
professors. But the design was frustrated by the continu- 
ance of war in Italy. 

Cassiodorus greatly encourages literature among his 
monks ; recommends the study of ancient authors as 
useful towards the exposition of Scripture ; introduces 
the work of transcribing as a monastic employment; en- 
joins, above all things, the reading of Holy Scripture (with 
the best expositors and no other), combined with especial 
attention to the moral instruction contained in its plain 
narrative. 

Sacred vessels of the Jews recovered from the Vandals, 
and distributed in various churches of Jerusalem, by order 
of Justinian. 

Arians in Africa lose their churches. 

During this century, the Christians of Abyssinia afford 



128 



FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL (Second 

protection to their brethren of Arabia Felix, who were 
persecuted by the Jews. 



Justinian favours the increase and security of Church 
property. 

The Council of Clermont sanctions the appointment of 
bishops by the votes of the clergy and people, with consent 
of the metropolitan. 

536 Agapetus, at Constantinople (whither he had been sent 
by Theodahat to intercede with the emperor in favour of 
the Ostrogoths), refuses to hold communion with An- 
thimus, Patriarch of Constantinople, because he had been 
translated from another bishopric, and also was suspected 
of holding Eutychian errors. Anthimus is deposed by a 
council, and Agapetus consecrates Mennas, the new 
patriarch of Constantinople, at the suggestion of the em- 
peror. The council condemns Monophysite doctrines. 

Agapetus, in a synodal letter to the bishop of Jerusalem, 
speaks of Mennas as made patriarch by the appointment 
of the emperor, with the approbation of the clergy and 
people. Agapetus died at Constantinople. 

537 Silverius, Patriarch of Rome, deposed and banished. 
His ruin effected by the machinations of Theodora and 
Vigilius with the support of Belisarius, Vigilius having 
engaged to annul the acts of the Council of Chalcedon. 
and to support Anthimus and his party. 

538 Vigilius, Patriarch of Rome, elected by command of 
Belisarius. Some say that he fulfilled his promise to the 
queen : others that he refused, declaring that, as vicar of 
St. Peter, he could not patronise heretics ; and that here- 
upon he was seized and carried prisoner to Constanti- 
nople. 

After the conquest of Rome by Justinian, the emperor 
exercises the right of confirming the election of Roman 
patriarchs, and of receiving payment for the act. 






By the Council of Orleans, Jews are forbidden to appear 
in public during a prescribed period at Easter. Thesame 
council favours Christian slaves against Jewish masters. 



Period.) to the death of Gregory the first. 129 

The Monophysite Controversy 
was continued by means of some Origenist Monophysite 
monks of Palestine : they made progress under the pro- 
tection of Theodore Ascidas, Bishop of Caesarea in Cap- 
padocia, who possessed the confidence of the emperor. 

A Monophysite church was established in Armenia, 
under the patriarchate of a " Catholic bishop." 



Celibacy of the clergy supported by edicts of Justinian 
in 530, 536, and 541. 

Regulations respecting the punishment of delinquent 
clergy made by the Council of Orleans. 

Cassiodorus, at the age of seventy years, retires to a 
monastery which he had founded — where he lived twenty- 
three years more. It has been disputed whether or not 
Cassiodorus and his monks are to be reckoned among the 
Benedictines. 

Justinian enacts that sponsors may not marry their god- 
children, on account of spiritual relationship. 



Justinian grants permission to the Jews to read Greek 
and Latin translations of their Scriptures, recommending 
especially the Septuagint ; but prohibits the reading of 
the Mishna. 

Reported conversion of Jews in Arabia Felix. 



(540 to 545.) War of Justinian with Chosroes, King of 
Persia. 

Chosroes severely persecutes the Christians in Persia. 
The church in that country never recovered from the 
effects of this persecution. 



Totila, King of the Ostrogoths, recovers Italy. 



Justinian confirms the clergy in the possession of various 
privileges and immunities; enacts that every archbishop, 
patriarch, and metropolitan, shall convene the bishops of 
his province once or twice every year; and forbids 

K 



130 FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL (Second 

bishops or presbyters to excommunicate without sufficient 
cause. 

Further favours or privileges granted to Christian slaves 
against Jewish masters, by the fourth Council of Orleans. 

About this time, the foundation of the system of private 
patronage in presentation to ecclesiastical benefices is laid 
by an edict of Justinian. 



541 



544 



Justinian, urged by the friends of the Council of Chalce- 
don, publishes an edict condemning the Origenist opinions, 
propagated by the monks of Palestine. A council at 
Constantinople condemns the same error. 

Theodore Ascidas, endeavouring to counteract the 
plans of the Chalcedonians, resolves to persuade the em- 
peror to condemn certain earlier writers of the Anti- 
origenist or Antiochenian School, proposing this step as the 
best means of accomplishing the emperor's favourite object 
of bringing the Monophy sites into union with the Catholics. 
Accordingly, in 544, Justinian published an edict con- 
demning the person and writings of Theodore of Mopsues- 
tia, the writings of Theodoret against Cyril's propositions, 
and the epistle of Ibas to Maris (TriaCapitula), notwith- 
standing that the orthodoxy of Theodoret and Ibas had 
been recognised in general by the Council of Chalcedon. 
This, step, intended as a means of accommodation, appeared 
to many as a measure in favour of Monophysite doctrine. 
Hence the distracting controversy concerning the Tria Capi- 
tula. The Eastern Church sided with the emperor ; the 
Western resisted. 






545 



(Jornandes, a monk, some say bishop of Ravenna, his- 
torian of the Goths, fl.). 



About this time, the councils in the West are occupied chiefly 
with matters of ecclesiastical discipline ; while those of the 
East are engaged with points of theological controversy. 



(or about 556.) j Dionysius Exiguus, a Roman abbot, 



Period.) to the death of Gregory the first. 131 

founder of the Christian system of Chronology, and com- 
piler of the Decretals. 
( f Tribonianus, chief compiler of the Justinian Code.) 



The judicial authority of the bishops was increased dur- 
ing the reign of Justinian, but without power over the per- 
sons or property of offenders. 



Jacobus Baradseus (or Zanzalus) ordained bishop of 
Edessa and apostle of the East by certain Monophysite 
bishops. He furnished the churches of Syria and Meso- 
potamia with presbyters and bishops, and united the various 
Monophysite parties of those countries in one church 
(Jacobites) under their own patriarch at Antioch. He 
died a. d. 578. 

Vigilius, Patriarch of Rome (who had been appointed 
to the see by the influence of Theodora, on condition of 
supporting the Monophysite cause) refusing to concur in 
the sentence of the edict, is summoned to Constantinople. 
Here he yields to the influence of the court, and unites in 
condemning the Tria Capitula (Judicatum), with an oath 
to persevere in the part he had now taken. 



* Saxon Heptarchy in England completed. 
Rome pillaged by the Ostrogoths under Totila. 

Justinian commissions John, Syrian bishop of the 
Eutychian or Jacobite party, to preach for the conversion 
of the Heathen still remaining in Constantinople and Asia 
Minor. John baptizes seven thousand persons. 



Council at Constantinople. Many Western bishops 
(especially Facundus) oppose the Edict. Vigilius after- 
wards persuades seventy Western bishops to subscribe his 
Judicatum ; but others persevere in their opposition, sup- 
ported by an able work of Facundus, Pro Defensione 
Trium Capitulorum. 

k 2 



132 



FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL (Second 



549 The Fifth Council of Orleans declares the consent of the 

sovereign necessary to confirm the election of a bishop. 



In France, the princes and nobles commit frequent de- 
predations upon the great and increasing property of the 
Church. 



Dedication of churches to the honour of saints. 

The Tonsure, which had already been adopted by monks, 
becomes general among the clergy in the West. 

Eleemosynary regulations by the Fifth Council of 
Orleans. 



Fulgentius Ferrandus fl. Abridgment of Canons. 



55® to 556. War with Persia. 



Justinian imposes severe pains and penalties upon 
Jews and Samaritans. 



The doctrines of Christianity are now greatly obscured 
by subtle philosophy and vain distinctions, more espe- 
cially in the East. 

Blind veneration of the clergy, and superstitious attach- 
ment to rites and ceremonies, continually on the increase, 
to the detriment of Christian truth. Superstition was 
greatly advanced ; first, by the neglect of sound learning 
among the clergy ; and, secondly, by the credulity of the 
barbarians who now received Christianity, and their fond- 
ness for the marvellous. But the clergy had now become 
the sole depositaries of the learning of the age, such as it 
was. 

Celibacy of the Clergy, 

Canons designed to check the marriage of the clergy 
were made by various councils during this century: e. g. 
Agde, 506; Gironne, 517; Toledo, 531 ; Auvergne, 535; 
Orleans, 538, 541, 549; Tours, 567; Auxerre, 578 ; 
Macon, 585 ; Toledo, 589. 



Period.) to the death of Gregory the first. 133 

551 Vigilius refuses to assent to a second edict of Justinian 

confirmatory of the former ; he excommunicates all who 
should defend the edict ; flees from Constantinople, but is 
recalled. 

Teias, King of the Ostrogoths, defeated by Belisarius 
and Narses. 

Kingdom of the Ostrogoths destroyed. Justinian 
master of Italy and Sicily. 



Arians in Italy lose their churches. 



Second Council of Constantinople (Fifth 
General), 
convened for the purpose of settling the controversy 
connected with the Tria Capitula. The council confirms 
all the religious edicts of Justinian. Vigilius and the 
Western bishops stand aloof. Vigilius publishes his Con- 
stitutum, at variance with the decrees of the council; 
thrown into prison ; the following year revokes his Con- 
stitutum, and accedes to the decrees of the council. He 
died at Syracuse on his return to Rome, 555. His suc- 
cessor, Pelagius, recognised the council ; but hence arose 
differences between the Church of Rome and other Western 
churches; and the object in view — an accommodation 
with the Monophy sites — remained unaccomplished. 



Justinian stipulates for greater toleration of Christians 
in Persia. 

Justinian was distinguished during the greater part of 
his reign by his attention to the interests of the Church, 
and his zeal for Orthodoxy. But, at length, he fell 
under suspicion of heresy. He was influenced by his 
wife Theodora, a woman of great ability ; formerly an 
actress, of loose character. He kept the bishops and clergy 
as much as possible under his own power. He published 
numerous edicts relating to the faith, worship, disci- 
pline, and property of the Church. Next to Constantine 
he was the chief (temporal) legislator of the Church. 

k 3 



134 FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL (Second 

Baronins censures hirrfon account of this interference ; and 
upbraids him with having taught and ruled in the Church, 
instead of having submitted to the teaching and govern- 
ment of her ministers. Perhaps, however, he legislated 
at the suggestion of the patriarch of Constantinople and 
other bishops ; and certain it is that the clergy lost less by 
their dependence upon him than they gained by his 
countenance and support. 

>56 f Arator, subdeacon in the Roman Church, a poet. 

557 The Council of Paris enacts that no bishop shall be 

appointed by royal mandate, or in any other way, against 
the will of the metropolitan and other bishops. It enforces 
ecclesiastical discipline. 



Many canons for the protection of Church property were 
passed during this century : by the council of Rome, 502; 
council of Agde, 506; Orleans IV, 541 ; Orleans V, 549; 
Paris II, 557 ; Tours II, 567 ; Valence, 584. 



558 Clotaire I. sole monarch of the Franks. 

The barbarous tribes, now masters of the West of Europe 
and great part of the South, begin to amalgamate with the 
old inhabitants, — adopt some of their laws — agriculture and 
other arts of peace, — and embrace Christianity ; but their 
credidity and ignorance are abused by the superstitions which 
had already been introduced into the Church, and their morals 
corrupted by the licentiousness of the conquered people : they 
introduce some of their own barbarous customs, e. g. duelling ; 
extinguish or corrupt the Latin language. Feudal System. 

The continued use of the Latin language in the pro- 
vinces of Europe, which had been overrun by Barbarians, 
contributes to increase the influence and poiver of the clergy. 



(Novelise. — The Codex Repetitae Prselectionis, Insti- 
tutions, et Novellas, collected into a body of civil law — 
Corpus Juris Civilis Romani.) 



In Spain the Sueves renounce Arianism, and adopt the 
Catholic Faith. 



Period.) to the death of Gregory the first. 135 

Second partition of the kingdom of the Franks, between 
the four sons of Clotaire I. viz. Charibert at Paris ; 
Gontram, Orleans ; Childeric, Soissons ; Sigibert, 
Metz. 

# Christianity received amongst the Picts and Scots. 
Columba, an Irish abbot, founds a monastery at Iona ; 
(d.597). 

The Benedictine order of monks makes great and rapid 
progress, and threatens to absorb all others in the West. 
Liturgical regulations by the Council of Braga. 

Laws against the Priscillianists. 



Council at Bourdeaux, under Leontius, deposes Eme- 
rius, whom Clotaire had appointed bishop of Santones by 
royal mandate. Charibert (son of Clotaire) confirms the 
appointment, and imposes a fine upon Leontius and the 
other members of the council, as a punishment for contu- 
macy. 

Justinian, at the close of his life, was engaged in a 
fruitless attempt to exalt the opinions of the Aphthartodo- 
cetae to the rank of orthodoxy. 



* Cassiodorus, after 56*2. 
Martin of Braga. Collection and translation of the 
decrees of councils. 

( J Procopius.) 



Justin II. Emp. East. 



The Monophy sites now begin to form a distinct sect 

Several minor sects arose out of the Monophysite con- 
troversies. — About this time, John Philoponus, a gram- 
marian of Alexandria, propounds a Tritheistic system, 
founded upon an erroneous application of the Aristotelian 
Realism to the doctrine of the Trinity. Damian, Mono- 
physite Patriarch of Alexandria, contending against 
Philoponus, verges towards Sabellianism (Damianites). 

K 4 



136 FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL (Second 

Stephen Niobes denied that there was any difference be- 
tween the two natures of Christ after their union (Nio- 
bites). 

567 Two Gallic bishops, deposed by a council at Lyons for 

disorderly conduct, appeal to the patriarch of Rome, 
who effects their restoration. They were afterwards de- 
posed again for fresh and more flagrant misdemeanours. 
A council at Tours enacts that no fees shall be taken 
at ordinations. 



Severe edicts against the Jews renewed by Justin II. 



568 Lombards, under Alboin, invade Italy, and erect a new 

kingdom at Ticinum (Pavia). Greeks retain Southern 
Italy (Exarchate of Ravenna), with dukes of Rome and 
Naples dependent. 

Some Christians among the Lombards. By degrees 
all the Lombards adopt Arianism, and thus restore the 
ascendancy of that creed in their part of Italy. 



57O (Mohammed born at Mecca.) 

572 Justin (in alliance with Turks from the river Don) at 

war with Persia. 



The Council of Braga requires metropolitans to give 
early notice of the time of Easter. Regulations concern- 
ing episcopal visitations, fees, and offerings. 



Revenue of the Church very large. Clergy more and more 
separated from laity. False and arrogant claims of the 
clergy. Esteem and veneration of relics continually increase. 

Ecclesiastical writers are now occupied, for the most part, 
in collecting the opinions and sayings of earlier authors, or in 
allegorising. 

Ancient superstitions are still maintained, to a certain ex- 
tent, by the learning and eloquence of some of their apologists, 
and especially by means of surviving ceremonies, festivities, 
monuments, and vulgar prejudices. 



Period.) to the death of Gregory the first. 137 

573 Incursions of the Avares in the West. 



In Gaul many Jews were compelled by Childebert to 
receive baptism. 



Tiberius II. Emp. East. 
Hormisdas V. King of Persia. 
Lombards lay siege to Rome. 



j Johannes Scholasticus. 



Monastic Schools. 
Colurnban establishes his rule of monastic discipline in 
Ireland, Gaul, Germany, and Switzerland. 



At the Council of Macon it was enacted that no 
Jew should sit down in the presence of a bishop without 
special permission. 

The acts of the Council of Macon held this year, 
the first document in which the term archbishop occurs, 
instead of metropolitan. 



Mauritius, Emp. East. 
John the Faster, Patriarch of Constantinople. 



Visigoths overcome the Sueves, and thus complete the 
conquest of Spain. 

Second Council of Macon. Ecclesiastical discipline. 
Right of asylum belonging to churches. Marks of respect 
to be paid to the clergy on the highway, under penalty of 
excommunication. Baptism to be administered only at 
Easter, except in cases of necessity. Payment of free-will 
offerings and tithes demanded. 



War between the Greeks and Lombards. 



The Council of Toledo inflicts pains and penalties upon 
the Jens. 



138 FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL (Second 

Towards the close of the century many Jews embrace 
the Gospel in the West. Gregory the Great discounten- 
anced all violent measures against the Jews, and all 
compulsory baptisms; and admonished the bishops to 
endeavour to convert that people by instruction and 
persuasion. 



587 



.589 



John the Faster, Patriarch of Constantinople, assumes the 
title of (Ecumenical bishop. Pelagius, Patriarch of Rome, 
earnestly contends against this assumption. 

Gregory, Patriarch of Antioch, accused before a council 
at Constantinople, under John the Faster. 

Reccared, King of the Visigoths, conforms to the 
Catholic Church. Final blow to Arianism among the 
Goths. 

The Council of Toledo enacts, that remnants of idolatry 
in Spain and Gallicia be destroyed. 

Rise of the dispute between the Eastern and Western 
Churches concerning the Procession of the Holy Ghost. 

The difference which subsisted between the Oriental 
and the Western genius and turn of thought (the former 
quick, volatile, and speculative ; the latter more sedate, 
settled, and practical), combined with difference of cir- 
cumstances attending the formation and development of 
the Greek and Latin Churches (the former continually 
fettered and restrained by imperial interference ; the latter 
left more at liberty in its decisions), had already produced 
variations in the tenets of the two churches, which, how- 
ever, had not led to any permanent disunion. But, at 
length, a dispute arose in connexion with speculations 
concerning the nature of the Holy Spirit, which led to 
more serious results. The Greek Church always held, 
that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father alone ; 
and thus the doctrine was stated in the Niceno- Constan- 
tinopolitan Creed (381). The Western Church, although 
it received that Creed, was disposed to represent the Holy 
Ghost as proceeding from both the Father and the Son ; 
chiefly, perhaps, with a view to uphold the doctrine of 
the Unity in Trinity, and to assert the co-equality of the 






Period.) to the death of Gregory the first. 139 

Son with the Father, in opposition to the Arians. At 
last, the Spanish Church made an addition to the Creed, 
in accordance with the Western doctrine. In 589 the 
Council of Toledo added " Filioque" to the words " Sp. 
S. qui procedit a Patre." This step was regarded by the 
Oriental Church as bold and dangerous, and immediately 
led to vehement controversy. 



The Council of Toledo enacts, that no clergyman shall 
accuse another before a civil magistrate (a rule frequently 
established by other councils also). Magistrates to attend 
in ecclesiastical councils once a year, in order to receive 
admonitions concerning their duties. 



Many regulations made by councils respecting the dis- 
cipline of the clergy. 

The Council of Toledo enacts, that the Nicene Creed 
be repeated by all persons before communicating in the 
Lord's supper (as a protection against Arianism). 



John Philoponus, a Christian philosopher, fl. 



Successful war of the emperor with Persia. 



Agilulph, King of the Lombards. 
Agilulph was tolerant of the Catholics. He eventually 
embraced the Nicene doctrines. 



Gregory I. (or The Great) Pope. 



Mauritius restores Chosroes II. to the throne of Persia, 
Peace with Persia. 



f Sulpicius Severus. 



The popes are now in possession of large revenues, 
arising from landed estates, cattle, &c. continually in- 



140 FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL (Second 

creased by presents and testamentary bequests. {Patri- 
mony of the Church , or of St. Peter.) 



598 



Gregory's Regular Pastoralis Liber. 



Gregory, by virtue of authority committed to him (as 
he said) by God and St. Peter, exercises jurisdiction 
over foreign bishops ; e. g. the bishop of Thessaly, and 
Maximus, Bishop of Salona in Dalmatia. 



593 The Emperor Mauritius forbids certain classes of his 

subjects to embrace the monastic life. Gregory expos- 
tulates. 



595 t Gregory, Bishop of Tours, historian of the Franks. 

596 t J° nn tne Faster. Cyriacus, Patriarch of Constanti- 
nople, perseveres in using the style of GEcumenical Bishop. 
Opposed in this by Gregory. 



Gregory strenuously opposes the practice of buying 
and selling ecclesiastical offices, which he denominates 
the heresy of Simon Magus, or Simony. This practice 
encouraged by the French kings. 

In the Epistles of Gregory frequent mention of Car- 
dinales Episcopi, Presbyteri, Diaconi. 

Correspondents (Apocrisiarii) and^foocafes(Defensores) 
resident at the court of Constantinople. 



* Gregory the Great sends monks into Britain under 
Augustin. Ethelbert, King of Kent, who had married 
Bertha, daughter of Charibert, King of Paris, favourably 
disposed towards the Christian religion. 

# Ethelbert, King of Kent, chief of the Anglo-Saxon 
kings, baptized by Augustin. Christianity generally 
embraced in Kent. 



Gregory, himself formerly a monk, a great friend and 



Period.) to the death of Gregory the first. 141 

promoter of monastic life and institutions. He endeavours 
to improve the state of monastic discipline ; allows bishops 
and other clergy to be chosen from among monks ; but 
seeks to prevent the blending of the two orders, monastic 
and clerical. He frequently granted to monasteries cer- 
tain exemptions from episcopal jurisdiction, and forbade 
bishops to interfere unnecessarily in the affairs of monks. 
But monasteries were still, to a great degree, subject to 
the visitation and superintendence of bishops. 

Choral singing patronised and promoted by Gregory 
the Great. 

Gregory a great promoter of ceremonial observances in 
Christian worship : removed many old customs ; esta- 
blished some new ones. Gregory's Liber Sacramentorum. 

All worship of images was disclaimed and censured by 
Gregory, who however maintained that images may be 
of use, especially to the unlearned, as remembrancers, or 
incentives to devotion, and as vehicles of instruction. 

In France, Childebert II. fixes a rate of fines to be 
levied upon all persons neglecting the observance of the 
Lord's day. 

Gregory required the clergy to celebrate marriages, 
baptisms, and funerals, without fees; but allowed them to 
accept voluntary offerings on such occasions. 

Gregory endeavoured to check the disorders which pre- 
vailed in the lives of the clergy, arising from the institu- 
tion of celibacy. But he was a zealous supporter of the 
system of clerical celibacy itself. 



End of the war between the Greeks and Lombards. 



| Venantius Fortunatus, Bishop of Poitiers, 'a Christian 
poet. 

Council at Rome. Rights and privileges of monks 
asserted. 

* Augustin, first Archbishop of Canterbury, was en- 
joined by Gregory to appoint twelve bishops under him- 



142 FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL (Second 

self, one of whom (the bishop of York), after his death, 
and upon the establishment of Christianity in his part of 
the country, should in like manner appoint twelve subor- 
dinate suffragan bishops. Probably this plan was never 
carried into effect. 



602 Phocas, Emp. East. 



* In a conference with the ancient British bishops, who 
still retained the old Oriental custom of celebrating Easter, 
and other peculiar practices, Augustin endeavours to per- 
suade them to conform to the Roman ritual. He almost 
prevails, by means of a pretended miracle. But after- 
wards, in a council, they refuse to comply. 



During the last century, it was common for missionaries 
among the Barbarians to report false prodigies, and even 
to pretend to the power of working miracles. The stan- 
dard of Christian doctrine which they taught was very 
low. " The principal injunctions they imposed upon 
their rude proselytes was, that they should get by heart 
certain summaries of doctrine, and pay to the images of 
Christ and the saints the same religious services which 
they had formerly offered to the statues of their Gods." 

Paganism is strangely blended with Christianity in 
many countries. Licences to sacrifice to heathen gods 
are now sometimes granted by (Christian) magistrates, 
upon payment of a certain fee. 



Gregory intolerant of all reputed heretics and schis- 
matics. 

Avian and Donatist parties may now be regarded as at 
an end. 

Pelagians, Nestorians, Manicliceans, still subsist. 



Gregory is a great enemy of ancient (profane) literature, 
but a zealous promoter of theological schools, and 
therein especially of psalmody. Isidore, Bishop of Seville, 



Period.) to the death of Gregory the first. 143 

makes great efforts for the promotion of theological 
learning. 

Ancient literature henceforward more and more de- 
nounced as worldly wisdom (literge seculares, sapientia 
secularis), unprofitable, and even injurious to Christian 
students. 

* Gregory the Great, 

distinguished by his practice of ascetic piety, — his en- 
couragement of learning, — liberality in almsgiving, — 
and his endeavours to maintain strict discipline among 
his clergy. 

The name of Gregory the Great closes the list of writers 
commonly called Fathers of the Church. After this time, 
theological literature was at its lowest ebb. Some germs 
of it, however, were found in Ireland, England, Spain, 
Italy, and France. The study of Scripture and of the 
writings of the Fathers was prosecuted especially in Irish 
monasteries, which became the seminaries of a new specu- 
lative dialectic system — the scholastic. 



Throughout this period, the bishops and whole body of 
clergy had been subject to the temporal princes and 
governors of their several countries. 



A general expectation of an approaching end of the 
world prevails. 

Doctrine of Purgatory. 

Gregory positively asserted the hypothetical doctrine of 
Augustin (see 409), respecting the purgation of souls by 
fire after death, and before the resurrection ; and esta- 
blished the doctrine as an article of faith. 

The Eucharist 
During the first six centuries, the doctrine concerning 
the elements of the Lord's supper, or the relation of the 
signs to the things signified, was stated by ecclesiastical 
writers in three different ways. — First, the theological 
position, which appears to have been the prevalent eccle- 



144 FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL (Second 

siastical notion, represented the bread and wine as being 
closely united to the body and blood of Christ, — and as 
it were penetrated or saturated with the sacred substance. 
This idea is found in the writings of Ignatius, Justin 
Martyr, Irenaeus, Hilary of Poitiers, Didymus of Alex- 
andria, Cyril of Jerusalem, Gregory of Nyssa, Ambrose, 
Chrysostom, Cyril of Alexandria, Theodoret. — Secondly, 
Some regarded the bread and wine as mere signs or sym- 
bols, supposing however, at the same time, that the body 
and blood of Christ stood in some sacred and supernatural 
relation to them. The patrons of this opinion (sometimes 
with approximation to the former) were Tertullian, 
Cyprian, Athanasius, and Augustin. — Thirdly, Others 
maintained that the signs and things signified were entirely 
distinct; but they held that a supernatural sanctifying 
efficacy attended the whole celebration of the rite. The 
writers who adopted this view (sometimes with a leaning 
to the second opinion) were Clement of Alexandria, 
Origen, Eusebius of Csesarea, and Gregory Nazianzen. 

No traces of the later doctrine of Transubstantiation 
are discoverable in any of these writers, except perhaps 
Gregory of Nyssa. 



List of Patriarchs and Popes, from the Year 
325 to 604. 

325. Alexander, Constantinople. triarchs of Constantinople in italics, with- 

326. Athanasius, Alexandria. out an ^ 0ther distinction - 



356. Felix. 
360. Eudoxus. 
366. Damasus. 



337. Julius, Rome. 
339. Eusebius, Constantinople. 
341. Paul and Macedonius, Con- 
stantinople, 370 ' & em °P Mus - 

Deposed and restored in turns 380. Gregory Naz. 

during several years. 381. JSectariUS. 

347. Leontius, Antioch. 384. Siricius. 

352. Liberius, Rome. 398. Chrysostom. 

Henceforth, in this list the names of ~~ ^?*^J?™ \ 

the Bishops ok Rome, or Popes, will be 402. INNOCENT I. 

printed in capitals, and those of the Pa- 404. ArsaciUS. 



Period.) to the death of gregorvt the first, 



145 



405. Atticus. 


532. John II. 


417. Zosimus I. 


535. Agapetus. 


419. Boniface I. 


— Anthimus I. 


422. CCELESTINUS. 


536. SlLVERIUS. 


426. Sisinnius I. 


— Mennas. 


428. Nestorius. 


538. Vigilius. 


431. Maximian. 


552. Eutychius. 


432. Sixtus III. 


555. Pelagius I. 


434. Proclus. 


559. John III. 


440. LEO I. (THE GREAT). 


565. (John III. Scholasticus. 


447. Flavian. 


Eutychius deposed). 


449. Anatolius. 


573. Benedict I. 


458. Gennadius. 


577. Eutychius 


461. HILARY. 


restored. 


468. Simplicius. 


578. Pelagius II. 


471. Acacius. 


582. John IV. (the Faster). 


483. Felix II. (III.). 


590. GREGORY I. or THE 


489. Euphemius. 
492. Gelasius I. 


GREAT. 


496. Anastasius II. 


595. Cyriacus. 


— Macedonius. 


597. * Augustin 


498. Symmachus. 


First Archbishop of Canterbury. 


511. Timotheus. 


Henceforth the names of these arch- 


514. Hormisdas. 


bishops will be added, — printed in Ro- 


518. John II. 


man letters, with an asterisk prefixed ; 


523. John I. 


so that this list will contain the names 
of 


— Epiphanius. 


POPES, 


526. Felix III. 


Patriarchs of Constantinople, 


530. Boniface II. 


* Archbishops of Canterbury. 



Councils from the Year 325 to 604. 



325. Nic;ea I. First General 
(against Arius ; on disci- 
pline). 

330. Alexandria. Carthage. 

331. Antioch (Arian). 

334. Csesarea (Arian). 

335. Tyre. Jerusalem (Euse- 

bian ; against Athanasius, 
and in favour of Arius). 

336. Constantinople (Eusebian ; 

against Marcellus and 
Athanasius). 



339. Antioch. Constantinople 

(Arian). 

340. Alexandria (in favour of 

Athanasius). 

341. Rome (in favour of Athan- 

asius). 

— Antioch (Marcellus and 
Athanasius again depos- 
ed). 

343 Antioch (by Eusebians ; 
fruitless embassy to the 
West). 



146 



FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL 



(Second 



346. Milan (in favour of the 

Creed of Nicsea). 
(344) 347. Sardica and Philip- 

popolis (by Eusebians). 364. 

Carthage (under Gratus ; 

on discipline). 366. 

Jerusalem. Rome (in fa- 
vour of Athanasius). 

Cordova (confirming the de- 
crees of Sardica). 367. 

Sirmium I. (against the 369. 
doctrine of Photinus). 

Egypt. Rome (in favour 

of Athanasius). 370. 

Aries (against Athanasius). 

Antioch (against Athana- 372. 
sius). 

Milan (Athanasius again — 
condemned). 374. 

Beziers (Hilary deposed 

by Arians). 375. 

Sirmium II. (strict Arian, 

or Anomcean. Photinus 376. 
deposed). 377. 

Antioch (strict Arian ; 

under Eudoxius and Aca- 378. 
cius). 379. 

Ancyra (Homceousian or 380. 
Semiarian ; under Basil 380 
of Ancyra and George of 
Laodicea). 381. 

Sirmium III. 

Sirmium IV. — 

Rimini (Western ; against 382. 
Arius). 384. 

Seleucia (Oriental ; Semi- 
arian). 386. 

Constantinople (Arian). 389. 

Paris. 391. 

— Antioch (Arian). 
362 & 363. Alexandria (under — 

Athanasius). 
363. Antioch (Nicene Creed 
adopted by Arian bi- 
shops). 393. 



348. 



349. 



351. 

352. 

353. 
354. 

355. 

356. 

357. 



353. 



359. 



360 
361 



Between 347 & 380. Gan- 
gra; but some assign an 
earlier date. 

Lampsacus (by Macedo- 
nians). 

Rome (Macedonians adopt 
the Nicene Creed). 

About this time, Laodicea 
(on discipline). 

Rome. Antioch. 

Rome (in favour of Nicene 
doctrine ; against Ursa- 
cius and Valens). 

Alexandria (under Athana- 
sius). 

Rome (Auxentius excom- 
municated). 

Antioch. Nicopolis. 

Rome (against Apollinar- 
ists). 

Illyria. Ancyra. Nyssa. 
Rome. Puza in Phrygia. 

Cyzica (Semiarian, &c). 

Rome (against Apollinar- 
ists). 

Rome (against Arians, &c). 

Antioch (Homceousian). 

Antioch. 

or 381. Saragossa (against 
Priscillianists). 

Constantinople I. Se- 
cond General. 

Aquileia (under Ambrose). 

Constantinople. Rome. 

Bourdeaux (against Priscil- 
lianists). 

Rome (on discipline). 

Carthage (on discipline). 

Antioch. Sida (against the 
Messalians). 

Capua (under Ambrose ; 
concerning the Meletian 
Schism at Antioch, and 
against Bonosus). 

Hippo (under Aurelius, 



Period.) to the death of Gregory the first. 



147 



393. 

397. 

398. 
399. 



Bishop of Carthage; on 414 

discipline). — 

Sangara (by Novatians ; ce- 415 

lebration of Easter). 
Byzacium (on discipline). 416 

Carthage (on discipline). 
Carthage (on discipline). 417 

Alexandria. Jerusalem. 

Cyprus (Origenist doc- 418 

trines condemned). 

400. Ephesus (under Chrysos- — 

torn. Gerontius, Bishop 419 
of Nicomedia, deposed). 

— Rome (against the Dona- 423 

tists). 424 

— Toledo I. (communion be- 425 

tween Priscillianists and 
other bishops). 

401. (or between 399 and 402.) 
Turin (dispute between the 430. 

Bishops of Vienne and 
Aries). 431. 

— Carthage. 

— Milevi (concerning the Do- 
natists). 434. 

Chalcedon ; ad Quercum 

(against Chrysostom). 
Constantinople (in favour of 435. 

Chrysostom). 
Carthage (concerning the 

Donatists). 440. 

Constantinople (Chrysostom 

deposed). 441 

405. Carthage. 442, 

407. Carthage (on discipline, &c). 

408. Carthage. 447, 

409. Carthage. 

410. Carthage. 448, 

— Seleucia (on discipline). 
411 Conference with Donatists 

at Carthage. 
412. Carthage (Ccelestius con- 
demned). 

— Cirta (against the Dona- 

tists). 



403. 



404. 



448 
449 

449 



. Africa (by Donatists). 
Jerusalem (against Pelagius). 
Diospolis (under Eulogius. 
Pelagius acquitted.) 
. Carthage (against Pelagius). 

Milevi (against Pelagius). 
. Carthage (Pelagius again 
condemned). 
Various councils in Africa 

on discipline. 
Carthage (against Pelagius). 
Carthage (against appeals to 
Rome). 
. Cilicia (against Pelagians). 
Antioch (against Pelagians). 
. Carthage (against appeals to 

Rome). 
. Constantinople. 
Hippo. 
Rome. Alexandria (against 

Nestorius). 
Ephesus, Third General 
(against Pelagius and Nes- 
torius). 
Edessa (against the doc- 
trines of Theodore of 
Mopsuestia). 
Antioch (concerning Theo- 
dore of Mopsuestia and 
his doctrines). 
Antioch (Theodore con- 
demned). 
. Orange (on discipline). 
. Vaison. Aries (on disci- 
pline). 
, Toledo (against Priscillian- 
ists). 
. Antioch (Ibas, accused of 
Nestorianism, acquitted), 
f Constantinople (Eutyches, 
-j charged with Apollon- 
L arianism, condemned). 
. Ephesus (under Dioscurus ; 
in favour of Eutyches. 
Synod of Robbers). 



L 2 



148 



FROM THE FIRST GENERAL COUNCIL 



(Second 



449. Rome (against the proceed- 

ings at Ephesus). 

450. Constantinople (against Eu- 

tychian and Nestorian 
doctrines). 

451. Chalcedon, Fourth Ge- 

neral (against Euty- 
chian and Nestorian er- 
rors ; on discipline). 
— Milan. Aries (against Eu- 
tychians). 

452. Aries (on discipline). 

453. Angers (on discipline). 
455. Aries. 

457. Alexandria (against the 
Council of Chalcedon). 

465. Rome (on discipline). 

471. Antioch (Peter the Fuller 
deposed). 

475. Aries. Lyons (against Lu- 

cidus, accused of Pre- 
destinarianism). 

476. Ephesus. (under Timo- 

theus iElurus ; by the 
opponents of the Council 
of Chalcedon). 

477. Alexandria (against the 

Council of Chalcedon). 

478. Constantinople (Peter the 

Fuller deposed). 
481. Laodicea (Stephen, Patri- 
arch of Antioch, accused of 
Nestorianism, acquitted). 

484. Rome. 

— Conference at Carthage be- 

tween Arians and Catho- 
lics. (No agreement). 

485. Seleucia (two councils con- 

cerning marriage of the 
clergy ; conflicting de- 
cisions). 

— Rome. 

492. Constantinople (under Eu- 
phemius ; for confirm- 
ation of the canons of 
Chalcedon). 



495. Rome. 

496. Constantinople (Euphemius 

deposed and excommu- 
nicated). 
— Rome (canon of Scripture). 
Several councils in Asia 
about this time in favour of 
the marriage of the clergy. 

499. Rome. 

500. Lyons (conference between 

Catholics and Arians.) 

501. Rome (concerning the dis- 

pute between Symmachus 
and Laurentius). 

502. Rome ; Synodus Palmaris 

(in favour of Symmachus). 
504. Rome (Church property). 
506. Agde (on discipline). 
509. Antioch. 

511. Orleans (on discipline). 

— Sidon (against the Coun- 

cil of Chalcedon). 

512. Antioch (Severus made pa- 

triarch). 
516. Constantinople (against the 
Council of Chalcedon). 

516. Tarragona (on discipline). 

517. Epaonum (on discipline). 

— Lyons (on discipline). 

518. Constantinople (Council of 

Chalcedon confirmed. Se- 
verus condemned). 

— Jerusalem. Tyre (Con- 

firming the decrees of the 
preceding council). 

519. In Wales (David made arch- 

bishop). 

520. Constantinople (Epiphanius 

made patriarch). 

524. Lerida. 

— Valentia. 

— Aries (on discipline). 

525. Carthage. 

527. Toledo (on discipline). 
529. Orange (against Semipela- 
gian doctrines). 



Period.) to the death of Gregory the first 



149 



529. 
530, 
533. 
534. 
535. 



536. 



538. 
540. 
541. 

542. 
543. 

546. 
546. 
548. 

549, 



553. 



554. 
556. 



Vaison (on discipline). 557. 

531. Rome. 560, 

Orleans (on discipline). 

Rome. 

Carthage. 563. 

Clermont in Auvergne (on 

discipline). 566. 

Constantinople (against Se- 567. 

verus and Anthimus). 572. 

Jerusalem (confirmatory of 576. 

the preceding council). 580. 
Orleans (on discipline). 

Orleans (on discipline). 581. 

Orleans (on discipline). — 
Byzacena (on discipline). 

Antioch(againstOrigenists). 582. 

Constantinople (against 583. 

Origenists). 585. 
Lerida (on discipline). 

Valentia (on discipline). 5S6. 
Constantinople (against the 

Tria Capitula). 588. 
550. In Illyria and at Car- 
thage (in support of the 589. 

Tria Capitula). — 

Constantinople II. the 590. 

Fifth General (against 592. 

the opinions of Origen 

and the Tria Capitula). 

Jerusalem (confirming the 595. 

decrees of the preceding 597. 

council). 598. 

Aries (on discipline.) 599. 

Aquileia (against the de- 601. 

crees of the last general 

council). 



Paris (Church property). 

* LlandafF (native princes 
excommunicated for mur- 
der). 

Braga (against Arians and 
Priscillianists). 

Lyons (on discipline). 

Tours (on discipline). 

Braga (on discipline). 

Seleucia (on discipline). 

Braine (in favour of Gregory 
of Tours). 

Alexandria (on discipline). 

Toledo (re-baptism of 
Arians). 

Macon (on discipline). 

Lyons (on discipline). 

Macon (observance of the 
Lord's day, &c). 

Auxerre (confirmatory of 
the foregoing). 

Constantinople (in favour of 
Gregory of Antioch). 

Toledo (Arianism abjured). 

Narbonne (on discipline). 

Seville (on discipline). 

Saragossa (concerning 

Arians conforming to the 
Catholic faith). 

Rome (on discipline). 

Toledo (on discipline). 

Huesca (on discipline). 

Barcelona (on discipline). 

Sens (reformation of man- 
ners, &c). 



END OF THE SECOND PERIOD. 



L 3 



PERIOD III 



FROM THE DEATH OF GREGORY THE FIRST TO THE 
DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE. 



604 



606 



604—814. 



(Phocas, Emp. East.) 

Goar, a French hermit, propagates the Gospel on the 
Rhine, where it had been nearly exterminated by the 
incursions of Barbarians. 

N.B. Germany received the Gospel first from the 
Romans, — then from Gaul, — and afterwards, more es- 
pecially, from the British Islands. About this time, monks 
from England and Ireland greatly contribute to the pro- 
pagation of Christianity in that country. Columban. 
Gallus. 

* Christianity embraced in Essex. 

Columban, driven from Germany by the opposition of 
the nobles, removes to Switzerland ; whence he was after- 
wards obliged to retire. 

Gallus (St. Gall) propagates Christianity in Switzer- 
land and Suabia. 



* Heathen temples in Britain turned into churches ; 
ancient pagan rites and ceremonies retained, and christ- 
ianized, as far as possible, among the Anglo Saxons. 

* Augustin, Archbishop of Canterbury, laboured to 
induce the British churches to conform and submit to 
Rome. His attempts were resisted ; whereupon he en- 
deavoured to force a compliance. 



Third Period.) from the death of Gregory, etc. 151 

Soon after the death of Gregory, a superstitious use of 
pictures and images became prevalent in the West, and was 
sanctioned by the heads of the Church. The Gallican 
Church, however, adhered rather to the principles of 
Gregory. 

Phocas concedes to Boniface III. the primacy of the 
Church of Rome, declaring it the head of all churches, 
not excepting even that of Constantinople. But the pope 
does not exercise unlimited dominion over the whole 
Church during this century. Eastern and * British 
Churches do not acknowledge the primacy of Rome. But 
some say that the supremacy of the bishop of Rome was 
acknowledged in England at this time. 



618 



Theodorus, a presbyter, asserts the genuineness of the 
pretended works of Dionysius the Areopagite. These 
works acquire great credit in the East, and contribute to 
the growth of a contemplative or mystical theology during 
this century. 

Heraclius, Emp. East. 



f Moschus, monastic historian. 



Mohammed begins to propagate his doctrines at Mecca. 

The Avares conquer Istria. The Persians masters of 
Syria and Cappadocia; and afterwards of Palestine and 
Egypt. 

Boniface IV. established a festival in honour of All 
Martyrs (whence came afterwards the Festival of All 
Saints). 

Clotaire II. sole monarch of France. 



* Slaughter of twelve hundred monks of Bangor by 
Ethelred, King of Northumberland, in consequence of 
their resistance to papal dominion, and the introduction 
of Romish ceremonies. (Some suppose that this massacre 
took place at the instigation of Augustin or Ethelbert). 

L 4 



152 FROM THE DEATH OF GREGORY THE FIRST {Third 

615 Columban died in a monastery which he had founded 

at Bobium, in a valley of the Pennine Alps in Liguria. 



620 



622 
625 



627 

628 



The Benedictine monks and others are now zealously 
employed in propagating the doctrine of Purgatory. 



* Westminster Abbey (St. Peter's and St. Paul's) 
founded. 

The ecclesiastical literature of this period consists 
chiefly of 

Catence Patrum, 

Vitce Sanctorum, 

Ijibri de Divinis Officiis. 



Many churches were built about this time. 
Bells begin to be applied to ecclesiastical uses. 



Flight of Mohammed. Hegira. 



Successes of Heraclius against the Persians. 



Monothelite Controversy. 
Disputes between the Catholics and Monophysites con- 
tinue. Heraclius, desirous of effecting an union between 
the two parties, listens to a suggestion that such union 
might take place if no mention were made of one or 
two natures in Christ, but it were simply asserted that 
there is in him only one will and mode of operation : 
such was the origin of the Monothelite controversy. 



# Christianity received in Northumbria. 



Dagobert, King of France. 



* The British churches refuse to submit to the au- 



Period.) to the death of Charlemagne. 153 

thority of the pope, Honorius, in the matter of the Paschal 
controversy. 

630 Mohammed captures Mecca. 

Croatian s converted to Christianity. 



631 * The East Angles christianized 



63$ Death of Mohammed. The false prophet leaves Arabia 

under the dominion of the Caliphs. Abu Beker, first 
Caliph, compiles the Koran. 



683 t Isidore, Bishop of Seville. 

Monothelite Controversy. 

Cyrus, Catholic Patriarch of Alexandria, declares, in 
accordance with the emperor's views, that Christ, as God 
and man in one person, wrought all his works by one 
divine-human mode of operation (p!a ScavSfjxj? kvepyelat.), 

Sophronius, a monk of Palestine, residing at Alexandria, 
protests against the declaration of Cyrus, as favouring 
Monophysite doctrines, and maintains that the two na- 
tures of Christ imply two corresponding modes of ope- 
ration. 

Sergius, Patriarch of Constantinople, advises Cyrus to 
let the matter rest, as being attended with difficulties on 
both sides. 

634 The Pope, Honorius, gives his opinion in favour of 

Cyrus. He regards the whole question as one of idle 
speculation, but considers the doctrine of two wills parti- 
cularly dangerous. He incurs the condemnation of 
councils by his toleration of Monothelite doctrines. 

Sophronius, nowPatriarch of Jerusalem, protests against 
Monothelite doctrines, and contends that the doctrine of 
two wills in Christ does not imply any opposition between 
his divine and human nature. 



Omar, second Caliph, pursues the victories of Moham- 
med. 



154 FROM THE DEATH OF GREGORY THE FIRST [Third 



634 
635 



637 
638 



639 
640 



641 



#■ Christianity embraced in Wessex. 



About this time a revised edition of the Dionysian Col- 
lection of Canons was published, under the name of Isidore 
of Seville. Several editions of the canons and decretals 
were from time to time published, having the Dionysian 
collection for their basis. 



Nestorian Christians preach the Gospel among the 
Tartars ; perhaps, also, their labours extended to China. 
The followers of Mohammed begin to make inroads 
upon the Christian churches in the East. In many 
countries the doctrines of the false prophet supersede the 
religion of the Gospel (as it was then professed) before 
the close of the century. 

Jerusalem in the hands of the Caliphs. 
Antioch, and all Syria, under the Caliphs. 



The kingdom of France again divided. Power of the 
mayors of the palace established. 



Heraclius publishes an edict — " Exposition of the 
Faith" — in order to suppress the Monothelite contro- 
versy. Edict received at Constantinople by councils un- 
der Sergius and Paulus (638, 639). The two patriarchs 
of Rome, Severinus and John IV., protest against the 
edict as favouring Monothelitic views. 



Mesopotamia in the hands of the Mohammedans. 

Alexandria, and all Egypt, in their power. 

* Mercia receives Christianity. 



CONSTANTINE III, IlERACLEONAS, then CONSTANS II, 

Emp. East, to 668. 
During this reign the empire rapidly declined. Con- 
stans purchased the retreat of the Saracens from Constan- 
tinople. 

Gradual growth of episcopal power in the West, and espe- 



Period.) to the death of Charlemagne. J 55 

daily of the authority of the bishop of Rome, after the 
abolition of metropolitan influence. 

Theodore assumes the title of 
Sovereign Pontiff. 



644 
646 



467 
648 



Othman, Caliph. 



(al. 648.) Theodore, Patriarch of Rome, excommunicates 
Cyrrhus, Patriarch of Constantinople, as a Monothelite. 
Edict not universally received in the East. Maximus 
strenuously defends Dyothelite doctrines. (Theodore 
wrote his anathema with sacramental wine.) 



Saracens make conquests in Africa. 
— 650. Cyprus and Rhodes subdued by the Saracens. 
* Christianity had now made great progress among the 
Anglo Saxons. 

Constans publishes a newedict — " Form of the Faith," 
— forbidding all persons to raise the question concerning 
one or two natures in Christ, and commanding all to abide 
by the doctrine of the Fathers, and not to charge each 
other with heresy. Unwelcome to the Catholics, as secretly 
favouring Monophysite or Monothelite tenets, or as an 
indication of gross latitudinarianism or indifference. 
ie The Exposition " revoked. 
649 Martin, Patriarch of Rome, rejects the edict of Con- 

stans. Holds a council in the Lateran Church at Rome 
(First Lateran Council), which confirms the Dyothelite 
doctrine, pronounces an anathema against the opposite 
system of belief, its patrons, the patriarch of Constanti- 
nople, and the two imperial edicts. 



Clerical celibacy is now strictly enforced. 



Arabian Schools. 



Expositors of Scripture are now few, and their works 
are of a very inferior kind. 



156 



FROM THE DEATH OF GREGORY THE FIRST (Third 



650 Paulicians. 

Gnostic sects, as such, are now no longer found. But in 
this century the sect of the Paulicians maintained Gnostico- 
Manichaean opinions (chiefly Marcionite), in combination 
with a deeply religious or mystical sentiment, opposed to 
ceremonial observances of the dominant Church. It was 
their professed object to restore apostolic institutions and 
discipline in their churches, and especially to follow the 
rules and examples of St. Paul ; whence probably their 
name. Photius says that the sect originated with two 
brothers, Paul and John, of Samosata, who flourished 
about 650. Soon after that date, Constantine (called 
Sylvanus) was at the head of an establishment of this 
sect at Cibossa in Armenia. 



During this age Christian doctrine became more and more 
obscured by "prevailing superstition and ignorance. Fables 
and errors relating to purgatory, demonology, and the 
authority of the pope, were exalted into articles of faith, 
and confirmed by fictitious miracles. 

Strenuous asserters of great truths, in opposition to the 
tide of error and false doctrine, were not altogether 
wanting. 



Concerning rites and ceremonies about this period, the 
following particulars are worthy of note : — 

1. A long and even sanguinary struggle in England 
concerning the celebration of Easter. 

2. A dispute in England concerning the threefold ton- 
sure of St. Peter, St. Paul, and Simon the Sorcerer. 

3. The introduction of bells. 

4. The prevalence of the Latin language in the offices 
of divine worship, to the exclusion of the vernacular 
tongues. 

The festival of All Martyrs in Italy, — of the Ascension 
in the Greek Church, — and the Elevation of the Cross. 
The system of so-called spiritual relationship. 
The celebration of private masses. 



Period.) to the death of charlemagne. 157 

The excessive extension of rights of asylum already 
granted to churches. 

651 Persia completely in the power of the Saracens. 

Emmeran spreads Christianity in Bavaria. 



653 The emperor proceeds against Martin and Maximus 

Confessor as guilty of high treason. Martin made pri- 
soner, taken to Constantinople, deposed, and banished, 
together with Maximus. 

The Western Church had now broken off communion 
with the Eastern, which inclined for the most part to 
Monothelite doctrines. The Dyothelite system of the 
West eventually prevailed also in the East. 



Many severe persecutions and forced conversions of 
the Jeivs in Spain, until the overthrow of the kingdom of 
the Visigoths. 

655 Ali, Caliph. Dissensions among the Saracens. 



In the East, the civil power is supreme, and the ecclesias- 
tical subordinate. In the West, the influence and authority 
of the Church predominate. 

The patriarch of Rome now lays claim to the exclusive 
appellation of Pope, which had been gradually conceded 
to him. 

The possessions of the Church, having been continually 
enlarged by the donations of princes, and the benefactions of 
charitable individuals, are now very extensive. 



The earlier sects and parties had now been, for the 
most part, overborne and suppressed. But the Nestorians 
and Eutychians subsisted in the Eastern provinces, and 
enjoyed liberty of conscience under the Mohammedan 
conquerors of those regions. 



661 Moawiah, first of the Ommiyade Caliphs, at Damascus. 



158 FROM THE DEATH OF GREGORY THE FIRST [Third 

661 t Udefonsus, Bishop of Toledo. 



662 Grimoald, King of the Lombards, makes inroads upon 

Lower Italy. 

} Maximus Confessor, Byzantine secretary of state, 
and afterwards a monk. He wrote a commentary on 
the pretended works of Dionysius the Areopagite, and 
introduced into the East a compound system of theology, 
dialectic and mystical. 



663 The Pope does homage to the emperor at Rome. 



Exclusive use of the Latin language in the offices of 
divine worship enjoined. 



664; * In the Council of Whitby, the question concerning 

the time of observing Easter in Great Britain was decided 
in favour of the Roman method. 

* Various seminaries of religious learning in Great 
Britain. 

668 CONSTANTINE XIV. (POGONATUs) EMP. BAST. 



* Theodore consecrated archbishop of Canterbury, 
on the nomination of the pope (Vitalian). Theodore was 
a native of Tarsus in Cilicia. He was a patron of theolo- 
gical learning. 

669 — 676. The Saracens besiege Constantinople during the 
summers of seven successive years. The city saved by 
the Greek fire. 

670 Grimoald, King of the Lombards, renounces Arianism, 
and conforms to the Catholic Church. 



Mention of the Athanasian Creed, at Autun, this 
year. 

6j5 The Council of Toledo enacts canons against Simony, 

and enforcing the study of Scripture among the clergy. 



Period.) to the death of charlemagne. 159 

* Use of the Latin language in divine worship gra- 
dually established in England. 

* In England, Theodore, Archbishop of Canterbury, 
promotes the establishment of parish churches, and gives 
the right of patronage to the founders. 

* It is supposed that the payment of tithes was es- 
tablished in Britain at the period of the conversion of 
the Anglo Saxons. The custom may have been intro- 
duced by Augustin. 

Superstition continually increases, and vice abounds 
more and more, especially among the clergy. 

The monastic orders of the West begin to be peculiarly 
attached to the see of Rome, partly perhaps as a means 
of escaping the more immediate authority of their lawful 
superiors — the local bishops. 

* Wilfrid, Archbishop of York (i. e. of all Northum- 
bria), resists the attempt of Theodore to divide his 
bishopric, and appeals to the pope. The pope decides 
in his favour ; but he was deprived and imprisoned by 
Egfred. He was afterwards successively reinstated, and 
deposed, and reinstated again. The Saxon kings resisted 
the undue interference of Rome. 

N.B. At this time a certain deference was paid to the 
decisions of Rome, and precedence was conceded to it as 
an elder church. But the Saxon kings did not yield to 
the pope ecclesiastical power within their dominions. 
Rome had not yet obtained spiritual supremacy in Bri- 
tain. 

* Christianity received in Sussex. 
■$■ Conversion of the Heptarchy complete. 



The Eastern Church has now made a collection of 
canon laws. 



The Bulgarians establish a kingdom between the 
Danube and the Balkan. (This became a Greek pro- 
vince in 1018.) 



160 FROM THE DEATH OF GREGORY THE FIRST (Third 

680 Constantine Pogonatus, in order to settle the differences 

between the Eastern and Western Churches, convenes 
the 

Council of Constantinople (Sixth General). 

The Council decides in favour of Dyothelitic doctrines. 
George, Patriarch of Constantinople, abandons the Mo- 
nothelitic party ; Macarius, Patriarch of Antioch, perse- 
vering in his attachment to that cause, is deposed. All 
Monothelites, including Honorius, former Bishop of Rome, 
anathematized. 

The council, by its decrees, demands the acknowledg- 
ment of two wills and modes of operation in Christ, 
corresponding to His two natures, without division and 
opposition, and without confusion, the human will being 
always subordinate to that which is divine and almighty. 



The Paulicians suffer persecution. Constantine, their 
leader, is put to death by order of the emperor. Soon 
afterwards, Simeon, who was employed in the execution 
of the sentence, became a convert to their opinions, and 
was recognised as a leader of the sect, under the name of 
Titus. 

* Laws relating to the celibacy of the clergy were nomi- 
nally in force in the Anglo Saxon Church, at a very early 
period of its history. 

682 Vamba, King of the Visigoths in Spain, deposed by 

the Council of Toledo. 



Leo usurps the right of Investiture. 



535 Justinian II. Emp. East. 

Abdul-Melech, Caliph, 
(remarkable for his hostility to Christianity). 



to 695. Fresh persecution of the Paulicians. Simeon 
and others put to death. 



Period,) to the death of charlemagne. 161 

686 | Anastasius, a monk of Mount Sinai. 



Pepin d' Heristal, Mayor of the Palace, ruler of all 
France. The French kings are now mere ciphers. 



Kilian preaches among the Franks. 
Willibrod preaches in Holland and Friesland. 



The Trullan Council (at Constantinople) completes the 
fifth and sixth general councils by some canons relating 
to the government and constitution of the Church. ( Hence 
called Quinisextum.) 

Celibacy of Bishops enjoined in the Eastern Church. 

The Trullan Council decrees that married bishops 
shall separate from their wives ; but allows all other orders 
of clergy to retain them. The contrary enactment of the 
Church of Rome censured. 

It is probable that the ivorship of images had now 
prevailed to a very considerable extent. 

Restoration of discipline attempted by means of Peni- 
tentiaries, canons of councils having been found inef- 
fectual. 

Erroneous views respecting the effects of excommuni- 
cation, and abuses in connection with satisfaction and 
penance, have now gained ground. No trace of Indul- 
gences. 

Justinian deposed. 
Leontius, Emp. East. 
$ Adamnan, Abbot of Hy in Scotland, conforms to 
the customs of the Church of Rome. 



Rupert, Bishop of Worms, baptizes Theodo II. Duke 
of Bavaria; and labours successfully for the establishment 
of Christianity in that country. He died in 718. 

Willibrod, an English monk and presbyter, who had 
successfully laboured for the propagation of Christianity 
in Franconian Friesland, and founded the archbishopric 

M 



162 FROM THE DEATH OF GREGORY THE FIRST {Third 

of Utrecht, was this year consecrated archbishop at 
Rome, under the name of Clemens. 
697 Carthage in the hands of the Saracens. 

Christians in China (where the Gospel had probably 
been preached during the early centuries) persecuted. 
They were tolerated again in course of the next century. 



Election of a chief at Venice, with the title of Doge or 
Duke. 
698 Leontius deposed. 

Tiberius III. Emp. East. 



Cen 

TURY. 



End of The emperors and kings of Spain, France, England, 
g™ and Italy, continue to assert and exercise their rights in 
venth ecclesiastical matters, and maintain them against attempted 
encroachments on the part of Roman patriarchs. 

The patriarchs of Rome continue to acknowledge the 
supremacy of the emperor. 

They still send their confession of faith to other patri- 
archs, and even confirm it with an oath, on coming to the 
see. 

Their election is confirmed by the emperor, or the 
exarch of Ravenna. 

They extend their influence by sending the archiepis- 
copal pall to foreign prelates ; a present which, conveyed 
through the hands of monks, tends also to increase the 
importance of that order, to the prejudice of the bishops. 

Councils, 

During this century, were for the most part convened, 
and their acts were confirmed, by temporal princes. 

They sometimes proceeded to condemn even the patri- 
arch of Rome. 

Their numerous regulations and enactments were de- 
trimental to Christian morality. 

They often contradicted each other. 

Ceremonies to be observed on occasion of their assem- 
bling were made the subject of express laws and regulations. 



Period.) to the death of charlemagne. 1G3 

End of Some special endowments of tithes were probably made 

THE p 

Se- before the end of this century. 

7 Q^ L m Many good laws and regulations were made during 
tury. this century, concerning the election and appointment of 
clergy; but they were frequently neglected. 

We now find frequent mention of the following eccle- 
siastical officers, whose origin, however, may be traced to 
an earlier (but uncertain) date : — Syncelli and Proto- 
syncelli; Scenophylaces ; Chartophylaces ; Apocrisiarii. 



The great controversies with Jews, Heathen, and false 
teachers, still employ the pens of some writers. The 
custom of discussing frivolous questions and subtleties is 
also introduced into Christian polemics. 



Great corruption of morals among Christians continues 
to prevail. The penitentiary books, first introduced by 
Theodore, Archbishop of Canterbury, are supposed to 
have increased this demoralisation in the West. 

But the age is not without proofs of the exercise of 
practical religion. 

Monachism in great repute, 
partly from the circumstance that many of the first 
preachers of Christianity among the barbarous tribes were 
monks, and partly in consequence of the advantageous 
contrast between the lives and morals of the monks and 
those of the more dissipated clergy. 

Various privileges were granted to monasteries, but 
without exemption from episcopal jurisdiction. 



A large part of Christendom, especially in the East, was 
now overspread by the propagators and adherents of a false 
religion. This may be regarded as a divine chastisement for 
the sins of the Church, in which genuine Christianity had 
declined to a fearful extent. But now also the religion of the 
Gospeljinds entrance among many uncivilised tribes and na- 
tions in the West, mingled at first with error and superstition, 

m 2 



164 FROM THE DEATH OF GREGORY THE FIRST (Third 

End of but destined to be by those nations preserved, gradually 
purified, and propagated throughout the world. 



THE 

Se- 
venth 
Cen- 
tury. 



Maronites. 
The remnant of the Monothelites now form a distinct 
sect. They occupy a monastery near Mount Lebanon, 
where they maintain their independence and the profes- 
sion of their faith until the time of the Crusades. Their 
first patriarch was John Maro. Hence they were called 
Maronites. In the twelfth century these Maronites were 
induced to conform to the creed of the Romish Church. 



# Aldhelm, Abbot of Malmsbury, writes against the 
celebration of Easter according to the ancient British 
custom. 



705 Justinian III. Emp. East, 

restored. 



706 Armenia in the hands of the Saracens. 



■#■ Saxon translation of the Psalms by Aldhelm. 



7O7 The whole of North Africa is now in the power of the 

Saracens. 

709 * t Aldhelm, Bishop of Sherborne. 



710 Naiton, King of the Picts, renounces the ancient cus- 

toms of his church, and conforms to the Church of Rome. 



Philippic us, Emp. East. 

711 First invasion of Europe by the Caliphs. 
Spain in the power of the Saracens. 

712 Roderic killed at Xeres. End of the Gothic monarchy 
in Spain. Spain under the power of the Caliphs. 

Luitprand, King of the Lombards. 



The Emperor, Philippicus Bardanes, makes an unsuc- 
cessful attempt to restore the ascendancy of Monothelite 
doctrines. 



Period.) to the death of charlemagne. 165 

Anastasius II. Emp. East. 
(714.) f Pepin d'Heristal. 
The Spanish Christians (Mozarabes) recover their re- 
ligious liberty. 

(Saracens generally concede to Christians the exercise 
of their worship in the conquered countries.) 

Charles Martel, Mayor of the Palace; master of all 
France (718). 

Winfried (Boniface, the Apostle of Germany) under- 
takes his first missionary journey for the conversion of the 
Frisons, but without success. 



Theodosius III. Emp. East. 



* Bede contributes to the increase of theological learn- 
ing in England. 

Leo III. (Isauricus) Emp. East. 
and 718. Saracens besiege Constantinople. 
Desolating contests between the Mohammedan chiefs in 
Spain. 

The emperor (Leo the Isaurian) favours the Paulicians, 
as enemies of superstition and image- worship. He caused 
their leader Gegnasius to be heard in defence of their 
opinions at Constantinople. 

The power of Charles Martel was favourable to the in- 
troduction of Christianity among the conquered people. 

Winfried, convinced of the supreme authority of the 
Romish see, and of the impossibility of laying the founda- 
tion of a church securely without adherence to it, goes to 
Rome, and receives authority from Gregory XI. to preach 
the Gospel in Germany. He afterwards assisted Willi- 
brod, Bishop of Utrecht, three years. 



The Council of Rome enacts canons against the mar- 
riage of the clergy. It defines the degrees of consan- 
guinity within which marriage is prohibited. 

M 3 



166 FROM THE DEATH OF GREGORY THE FIRST (Third 

721 * Saxon translation of the four Gospels, by Egbert. 



722 
7^3 



726 



728 
730 



Winfried preaches in Thuringia and Hesse. 

Winfried at Rome, — consecrated archbishop, under the 
name of Boniface. — Convinced of the necessity of en- 
gaging the secular power on his side, as a defence against 
the remaining influence of Heathenism, he repairs to 
Charles Martel, with a recommendatory letter from Rome, 
and enters into an understanding with him. Preaches 
again in Germany, and founds a church and monastery in 
Thuringia. 

During this century, new life is given to the Gallican 
Church, which had suffered greatly from the rapacity of 
the nobles, and from civil commotions. 

* About this time, two English missionaries, the 
brothers Ewald, make an unsuccessful attempt to pro- 
pagate Christianity among the Saxons, and are put to 
death. 

Leo III. (the Isaurian) publishes an edict prohibiting 
the religious adoration of images. Germanus, Patriarch of 
Constantinople, John of Damascus, and many monks, 
oppose this edict. 

Now begins the vexatious controversy respecting the 
use of images, which continued to distract the Church 
during the space of a hundred and twenty years, until 842, 
ivhen the superstitious practice was finally confirmed and 
legalised, 

# Inas, King of Wessex, founds a Saxon school at Rome, 
and makes a grant for its support. 



Second edict of Leo prohibiting all image-worship under 
severe penalties. Anastasius, Patriarch of Constantinople 
in room of Germanus, supports the edicts. Popular 
tumults. 

The Romans erect themselves into a republic ; at the 
head of which they place the pope, who is intrusted with 
the general administration of affairs. 



Period.) to the death of Charlemagne. 167 

730 ] f Corbinian. He had advanced the cause of Christianity 
in Bavaria. 

John of Damascus, promoter of dialectics and the Aris- 
totelian philosophy in the East. 

f Cosmas of Jerusalem, poet. 

731 * With this year Bede's English Church History ends. 



732 Boniface made archbishop and vicar apostolical. 

Charles Martel defeats the Arabians at Tours, and 
thus sets bounds to the inroads of Mohammedanism in 
the West. 

The popes attach themselves to Charles Martel in pre- 
ference to the Emperor Leo. 



Doctrine of the Church concerning the existence of God. 

John of Damascus maintained that the knowledge of 
God was originally implanted in the mind of man ; but 
that it had been taken away by the Evil One ; and now 
it is only by means of divine revelation that we are 
enabled so to make use of our reason, as to argue from 
the mutability of the creature to the unchangeableness of 
the Creator. 

734 # Saxon translation of St. John's Gospel, by Bede. 

735 f Venerable Bede. (Alcuin born.) 



Attempts to introduce Christianity into Denmark had 
been unsuccessful. 
739 Boniface erects bishoprics in various parts of Germany, 

and adopts measures for the general establishment and 
organisation of the Church in that country. 
| Willibrod. 



740 # First mention of the payment of tithes in Britain ; but 

not as a new custom. 



741 CONSTANTINE V. (COPMONYMUS) EMP. EAST. 

M 4 



168 FROM THE DEATH OF GREGORY THE FIRST {Third 

741 to 750. Constantine Copronymus perseveres in oppo- 

sition to image- worship. Popular tumults in favour of 
image-worship quelled. 

The Popes, having become Monarchs of the Church, 
aim at Supremacy over Temporal Princes. 

A council held this year enjoins upon bishops and 
abbots care for the due instruction of youth in Holy 
Scripture ; enacts that bishops shall preach during their 
visitation journeys ; and that priests shall teach the people 
the creed and Lord's prayer. 

* It appears that at this time the British Church was 
not entirely independent of Rome. But there is no 
proof that the supremacy or judicial authority of Rome 
had been yet established in Britain. 



743 



744 
745 



747 



749 



First Provincial Council of Germany, under the presi- 
dency of Boniface, as pope's legate. Many such councils 
under Boniface, for the purpose of enacting laws con- 
cerning the lives and manners of the clergy, spreading 
religious knowledge among the people, healing divisions 
and schisms, and condemning erroneous doctrines. 

Sturmio, a disciple of Boniface, founds the abbey of 
Fulda. 

The archiepiscopal seat of Boniface fixed at Mentz, 



Pilgrimages to Rome are now of frequent occurrence, 
and often attended with disorderly conduct. 

The Monastic Orders gradually obtain large accessions of 
loealth. 

# It was decreed by the Council of Cloveshoo that the 
people should learn the creed, the Lord's prayer, and 
some portions of the liturgy in the vulgar tongue. 



Aistulph, King of the Lombards. 



Period.) to the death of charlemagne. 169 

750 Abul Abbas, Caliph, first of the Abbassides. 



(cir. 750.) John of Damascus. 
His " Exposition of the Orthodox Faith," a compound 
of Aristotelian philosophy and Patristic doctrine, conti- 
nued to be a standard of faith in the Eastern Church, 
and exercised considerable influence also in the West. 
His writings, in fact, gave a new turn to the method of 
stating and expounding Christian doctrine. 



Doctrine of the Church. 

The churches retain the fundamental articles of Christ- 
ian faith, but with certain corruptions, arising partly 
from general ignorance, and partly from erroneous tenets, 
especially those which were introduced by John of 
Damascus. 

The points of doctrine which now form the chief sub- 
jects of discussion are those relating to the person of 
Christ and the procession of the Holy Ghost. 

Religious controversy was now conducted solely with 
arguments derived from the opinions and authority of 
former teachers. 



Church and State. 

The kings of the Franks, before Charlemagne, assumed 
the right of nominating bishops at their pleasure, either 
gratuitously or for money, notwithstanding the protests 
of popes and councils. 

Provincial councils also fell into disuse during this 
period, no merely ecclesiastical statute being allowed to 
possess the force of a law. But they were revived after 
Boniface had established such councils in Germany. 
After this, the influence of the Church in matters of civil 
government was considerable. To this influence, how- 
ever, limits were set by Charlemagne, who divided the 
estates of the kingdom into temporal and spiritual (the 
latter consisting of the bishops), entrusting to the former 



170 FROM THE DEATH OF GREGORY THE FIRST (Third 

the care of civil matters, and to the latter the manage- 
ment of matters ecclesiastical, and ordaining that the 
decrees of both should await the royal sanction. 

In Spain, the Church had great influence in matters of 
State. Here it was arranged that in the great national 
assemblies ecclesiastical matters should first be arranged 
by ecclesiastics alone, and then the temporal or civil 
business should be conducted by ecclesiastics and laymen 
conjointly. 

The practice of religion now in the greatest esteem 
consisted in the honouring of saints, contributing to the 
erection of religious edifices, and making rich presents 
to the clergy. 

Pilgrimages also are in high repute. 



The celebration of the Lord's supper is now entirely 
converted into the so-called sacrifice of the mass. 
Masses for the dead, for the sick, for fine weather. 
The service much frequented by children. 



Many Italian and Gallican bishops, following the ex- 
ample of Augustin in Africa, had endeavoured to esta- 
blish certain rules and orders among the clergy, for the 
better regulation of their morals and the preservation of 
decorum. About this time, Chrodegang, Bishop of Metz, 
succeeded in establishing rules for canons and chapters, in 
imitation of the monastic (Benedictine) institutes, which 
were confirmed in general by Charlemagne. 



751 Childeric III., last of the Merovignian kings, deposed, 

and shut up in a convent. 

The Lombards attack Ravenna, and make themselves 
masters of the Exarchate and Pentapolis. 
7<5^ Pepin the Short, sole monarch of France. 

End of the Merovignian dynasty in France. End of the 
Greek Exarchate in Italy. 



Period.) to the death of Charlemagne. 171 

J53 Almanzor, Caliph of the Arabians, a great promoter of 

learning and science. 

Boniface, choosing rather to labour as an apostle or 
missionary, resigns his archbishopric (to Lull). 



The emperor convenes a council at Constantinople, 
designed as the Seventh General Council, which anathema- 
tizes all persons making images of Christ, as Nestorian or 
Eutychian heretics ; declares the eucharistic elements to 
be the only lawful representation of our Lord's body ; 
and condemns the religious use of images in general. 
At the same time, it anathematizes all opponents of the 
religious veneration of Mary, and other saints. Opposi- 
tion is offered by the monks, who defend the use of 
pictures and images, and are severely treated in conse- 
quence. Opponents of image-worship — Iconomachi — 
in the ascendant. 

Abdalrahman, first of the independent Ommiyadan 
Caliphs, at Cordova. 

Boniface put to death by the heathen Prisons, after 
having converted many of their countrymen to Christ- 
ianity. 

Christians in Syria forbidden to build new churches. 



Pepin the Short confers the Exarchate and Pentapolis 
upon St. Peter (the pope). 

The donation of Pepin confirms and extends the secular 
power of the pope. Origin of the pope's temporal sover- 
eignty. 

The clergy withdraw themselves more and more from 
the jurisdiction of the civil magistrate. Their habits of 
life, for the most part, are exceedingly dissolute and 
vicious. But their fictitious piety is extolled, and their lying 
wonders are believed ; while some men of higher moral 
character, who refuse to serve the avarice or ambition of 
the order, are branded with infamy, as impious blas- 
phemers. 



172 FROM THE DEATH OF GREGORY THE FIRST (Third 

Gregory of Utrecht, a disciple and companion of 
Boniface, presides over a monastery in Friesland, where 
he trains English, German, and Frankish youths as mis- 
sionaries. 



756 The kingdom of Oviedo or Leon founded, under 

Alphonso I. 

Desiderius, King of the Lombards. 
7*59 Pepin expels the Arabs from Languedoc. 



Ecclesiastical authority makes various encroachments on 
the civil power. 

7^0 France now possesses many schools. 

*• At York there is a school for the clergy, and a library. 
Alcuin was educated there. 

Gregory, disciple of Boniface, trains young men for the 
work of promoting the conversion of the Saxons. 



*jQ6 Almanzor makes Bagdad the capital of the Caliphate, 

instead of Damascus. 



767 Struggle for the see of Rome, between Constantine, 
Philip, and Stephen. 

Ecbert, Archbishop of York, makes a collection of 
canon laws. 

768 Charlemagne, King of the Franks. 
Charlemagne endeavours to propagage Christianity 

among the Saxons by force. Outward conformity occa- 
sionally produced ; but the Saxons renounced Christi- 
anity as soon as they threw off the French yoke. Alcuin 
advised the emperor to attempt their conversion by means 
of instruction and conviction ; but in vain. 



The Eastern and Western Churches at variance re- 
specting the doctrine of the double procession of the Holy 
Spirit. 



Period.) T o the death of Charlemagne. 173 

Charlemagne patronises and promotes Literature in the West. 
* Alcuin labours for the advancement of theological 
learning in England. 



Charlemagne, sole king of France, 

From this time, until the end of the century, Charle- 
magne successfully prosecutes wars against the Saxons, 
Bohemians, and Huns. He compels the people whom 
he conquers to embrace Christianity. This method of 
propagating the Gospel by the sword was learnt, say 
some, from the Mohammedans. 

Under the dominion of the Franks, the clergy enjoyed 
the privilege of exemption from military service; but 
with two provisions, first, that the lands of abbots and 
bishops should furnish due contributions for war; and 
secondly, that no persons of free condition should enter 
holy orders without permission from the superior magis- 
trate. Hence many slaves were admitted into the clerical 
body. 

Charlemagne dethrones Desiderius, and puts an end 
to the kingdom of the Lombards in Italy. He receives 
the right of sovereignty over Rome and the ecclesiastical 
states. 

LEO IV. Emp. East. (Irene, Empress.) 

Leo IV. is opposed to image-worship. His queen, 
Irene, a superstitious and depraved woman, favours it. 

The practice of different churches, with respect to the 
use and worship of images, varies, according to the dif- 
ferent parts taken by their leaders in the controversy on 
that subject now pending. 

The payment of tithes for the first time rendered com- 
pulsory by a law of Charlemagne. 

After the death of Leo, and during the minority of his 
son, Irene lends her support to the friends of image- 
worship. 

Sergius, under the name of Tychichus, an active and 
influential leader of the Paulicians ; zealous especially in 
the cause of practical Christianity. (He died in 811.) 



174 FROM THE DEATH OF GREGORY THE FIRST (Third 

780 



782 



784 



786 



787 



CONSTANTINE VI. EMP. EAST. 
His mother, the Empress Irene, Guardian, until 790. 



From this time Alcuin is in France. 
Many schools in cathedrals and monasteries founded 
by Charlemagne. 

Tarasius, Patriarch of Constantinople in the room of 
Paul, seconds the views of Irene. He unites with the 
Church of Rome, which had declared in favour of image- 
worship, and declares the last council not general. 

Attempts at convening a general council at Constanti- 
nople frustrated by the opposition of opponents of image- 
worship. 

Haroun al Raschid, Caliph. 



This year, the Seventh General Council assembled 
at Nic^a (II.). 

Here the acts of the former council were annulled, and 
the religious adoration of images was established (not 
Xctrpsloi, worship, but 7Tfo<rxuv>jcn£ t^yitixyj, veneration). 
Adrian, of Rome, approved the acts of this council. But 
the decree in favour of the religious veneration of images 
was condemned by councils at Frankfort, Paris, and in 
Britain. 

Transubstantiation. The Second Council of Nicaea de- 
termines that the elements in the Lord's supper are the 
very body and blood of Christ, not figures. Doctrine of 
transubstantiation, not yet quite formed. 



Charlemagne increases the grants of temporal pos- 
sessions to the pope. He retains, however, complete 
sovereignty over Rome, and is acknowledged by the 
pope as supreme. 

Adoptian Controversy. 

Elipandus, Archbishop of Toledo, and Felix, Bishop of 
Urgella in Catalonia, maintain that Christ, according to 
his divine nature, is the true Son of God (Alius Dei, 



Period.) TO the death of charlemagne. 175 

genere, natura) ; but, according to his human nature, the 
Son of God only by adoption (filius Dei adoptivus; filius 
Dei gratia, beneficio, voluntate, assumtione, electione). 
Hence themselves and followers are called Adoptians. 
This doctrine meets with violent opposition, as savouring 
of Nestorianism, and tending to the denial of the true 
and proper divinity of Christ. 



Gradual foundation of churches and monasteries in 
Saxony. 

Charlemagne publishes a refutation of the principles 
sanctioned by the Seventh General Council (Quatuor Libri 
Carolini). He maintains, in accordance with the sentiments 
of Gregory the Great, that no kind of veneration ought to 
be paid to images or pictures, although they may be 
lawfully and conveniently retained in churches as me- 
morials of sacred subjects — incentives to devotion — a 
means of instruction for the illiterate — and ornaments. 

Charlemagne compels the Saxons to pay tithes. 



At the Diet and Council of Ratisbon, the doctrine 
of the Adoptians is condemned as heretical. Felix re- 
cants. 



# Offa, king of Mercia and East Anglia, having 
murdered his son-in-law Ethelbert, seeks to atone for his 
crime by imposing a tax of one penny on each family in 
his dominions, to be paid annually to the Roman see. 
This, with a similar donation of Ina, King of the West 
Saxons, in 7*25, lays the foundation of the tribute deno- 
minated 

Peter's Pence, 



Felix, after his return to Spain, maintains his former 
opinions. Alcuin writes a refutation. 



A council at Frankfort-on-the-Maine repeats the con- 



176 FROM THE DEATH OF GREGORY THE FIRST (Third 

demnation of Adoptian tenets, and decides in favour of 
Charlemagne's positions respecting image-worship. 

Felix defends his doctrine against Alcuin. Several 
bishops unite with Alcuin in the controversy against him, 
especially Paulinus, Bishop of Aquileia. 



795 
796 

797 



The universal payment of tithes enforced by a canon 
of the Council of Frankfort. 

Temporal princes and nobles are now in possession of the 
principal church patronage. 

Two celebrated forgeries, designed for the advancement of 
the power of the Roman see, namely, the false Decretals, and 
the Donation of Constantine, were published about this time. 

Bishops have now begun to take an oath of allegiance 
to the pope. The pope supreme in the Western Church, 
although not yet quite absolute. 



The Aristotelian philosophy is now in high repute in the 
East. 

Charlemagne promotes the education of the clergy. He 
founds the Academy of Paris. 

Homiliarium, a collection of sermons for all the Sundays 
and Festivals of the year, selected from the writings of the 
Fathers, especially Augustin and Gregory the Great, 
compiled by Paul Warnefried, and published by authority 
of Charlemagne. 

Charlemagne also patronised a revision and correction 
of the Latin version of the Scriptures, which had been 
disfigured with barbarisms. 



Normans invade Ireland. 
The conquests and dominions of Charlemagne con- 
tinually increase. 

In a council held at Friuli, the doctrine of the double 
procession of the Holy Ghost is asserted, and the words 
Filioque added to the Nicene Creed. 



Irene, Empress of the East, 
after the murder of her son. 



Period.) to the death of Charlemagne. 177 

799 Felix again retracts his Adoptian tenets at the Council 

of Aix-la-Chapelle, after a disputation with Alcuin. Eli- 
pandus continued to maintain his tenets. 

| Paul Warnefried (Paul us Diaconus). 



803 



804. 



Timothy, the Nestorian patriarch (778—820), is said 
to have sent missionaries to the inhabitants of the borders 
of the Caspian Sea, and as far as China and India. 



Charlemagne, Emperor of the West. 



Image-worship opposed by Charlemagne. 

Prayers to the Virgin Mary and other Saints for inter- 
cession have become common. 

Charlemagne transmitted the decrees of the Council of 
Frankfort-on-the- Maine, and his books, to Adrian. The 
pope compiled a Refutation of the Caroline treatise ; 
which, however, made no impression on the Gallican 
Church. 

Charlemagne was a great cultivator of church music 
and psalmody, and promoted the celebration of divine 
service in the vernacular tongue. Organs introduced 
from the East to the West, but not yet employed in 
public worship. 

The Frankish liturgy made conformable to the Roman. 



"f George Syncellus, historian. 



The Caliphate begins to decline. 



Irene deposed. 
Nicephorus (Logotheta), Emp. East. 
(806.) The Saracens overrun Asia Minor, and compel 
Nicephorus to pay tribute. 

The Saxons finally subdued by Charlemagne. 



T Alcuin. Paul 



in us. 



178 FROM THE DEATH OF GREGORY THE FIRST (Third 

809 Charlemagne causes the addition of Filioque to the 

Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed to be confirmed by the 
Council of Aix-la-Chapelle. Leo declared the doctrine of 
the double procession to be correct, but thought that the 
Council of Constantinople had forborne to make the addi- 
tion under the guidance of divine inspiration. Therefore 
the admission of Filioque into the creed was not confirmed 
at Rome. 

Unsuccessful attempts at the forcible conversion of the 
Slavi, in the north and east of Germany. 

A mission for the conversion of the Avares, in Aus- 
tria and Hungary, under conduct of Arno, Bishop of 
Saltzburg. 

Many churches, monasteries, and bishoprics, founded in 
Saxony, where the Gospel is now gaining a firmer foot- 
ing. Christian knowledge disseminated by the labours of 
pious and zealous preachers. 



Partial and temporary revival of Literature in Europe. 
Flourishing period of Arabian Literature. 



811 (After Staur acius) Michael I. Emp. East. 

Persecution of the Paulicians renewed by the Emperor 
Michael and his successor. 
813 Leo V. (the Armenian) Emp. East. 

Al Mamoun, Caliph. 



The Council of Mentz frames a general rule for the 
canons regular of Augustin. 

Great corruption had now spread among the monastic 
institutions. In many cases monasteries were under the 
superintendence of lay-abbots, whose only object was the 
appropriation of revenue. 

The Council of Mentz enjoins the practice of preaching 
in the vernacular tongue. Council of Chalon on the 
Seine enjoins scriptural preaching, and the foundation 
of Christian schools. 

During the reign of Charlemagne, the clergy acquired 
a large accession to their wealth, and an increase of their 



Period.) to the death of Charlemagne. 179 

immunities and privileges; e. g. the right of coining 
money, — of hunting and fishing, — and exemption from 
the jurisdiction of inferior civil magistrates. 

Temporal princes still exercise authority in ecclesiastical 
matters to a considerable extent. Thus Charlemagne took 
cognisance of controversies, and procured the assembling 
of councils for the purpose of deciding them; instituted 
bishops, or confirmed their appointment; superintended 
the administration of Church property ; determined the 
boundaries of dioceses ; and enacted laws affecting the 
interests of the Church. 

The judicial authority and independence of the bishops 
were greatly extended by Charlemagne. The jurisdiction 
of the bishop extended to all causes, referred to him by 
either of two parties, and to all persons, whether clerks or 
laymen. No appeal from his decision. All the clergy de- 
clared exempt from secular jurisdiction. The right of 
imprisonment conceded to bishops in the execution of 
judicial sentences. 

Beyond the limits of Italy and the countries occupied 
by the Franks, the power of the pope was at its highest 
pitch in England, and its lowest condition in Spain. 

Church discipline thoroughly relaxed ; — superstitious 
opinions concerning the awful effects of excommunication 
prevalent ; but the doctrine widely spread, that men may 
redeem their own souls, or those of their relatives, by gifts 
to the Church. 

The Eucharist. — Doctrine of Transubstantiation. 

As early as the seventh century, and especially during 
the eighth and ninth, the fictitious doctrine of a miracu- 
lous, and as it were magical, change of the elements of the 
Lord's supper into the body and blood of Christ began to 
gain ground. This change, it was supposed, was made 
secretly, for the exercise of faith ; and therefore the trans- 
muted elements existed under the appearance (colour, 
flavour, &c.) of bread and wine (sub specie panis et vini). 
This doctrine was not established in the West without 
opposition and controversy; but it gained footing in the 
Greek Church more quietly, during the eighth century. 

n 2 



180 



FROM THE DEATH OF GREGORY THE FIRST {Third 



It was not distinguished by its modern name (Transub- 
stantiation) before the twelfth century. 

About this time, the use of unleavened bread in the 
Eucharist was introduced in the West. 



List of Popes, Patriarchs, and Archbishops of Can- 
terbury, FROM THE YEAR 604 TO 814. 



604. Sabinian. 


678. 


— * Lawrence. 




606. Boniface III. 


682. 


607. Boniface IV. 


683. 


— Thomas I. 




610. Sergius. 


684. 


615. Deodatus. 


685. 


617. Boniface V. 


686. 


619. * Mellitus. 


— 


624-. * Justus. 


.687. 


625. Honorius I. 


693. 


634. * Honorius. 


— 


638. Pyrrhus. 


701. 


640. Severinus. 


705. 


— John IV. 


— 


641. Paul II. 


708. 


Pyrrhus deposed. 


— 


642. Theodorus I. 


712. 


649. Martin I. 


715. 


654. * Adeodatus. 


— 


655. Eugenius. 


730. 


— Pyrrhus, 


731. 


Restored. 


— 


657- VlTALIAN. 


735. 


667. Thomas II. 


741. 


668. * Theodore. 


742. 


669. John V. 


752. 


672. Adeodatus. 


— 


674. Constantine. 


754. 


676. Domnus. 


757. 


— Theodore I. 


759. 


678. Agatho. 


763. 



George I. 

Theodore deposed. 
Leo II. 
Theodore, 

restored. 

Benedict II. 
John V. 
Conon. 
Paul III. 

Sergius. 
Callinicus I. 

* Birthwald. 
John VI. 
John VII. 
Cyrus. 
Sisinnius. 
Constantine. 
John VI. 
Gregory II. 
Germanus I. 
Anastasius I. 
Gregory III. 

* Tatwine. 

* Nothelm. 
Zachary. 

* Cuthbert. 
Stephen II. 
Stephen III. 
Constantine II. 
Paul I. 

* Bregvvin. 

* Lambert. 



Period.) 



TO THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE. 



J 81 



766. Nicetas I. 

767. CoNSTANTINE. 

768. Stephen IV. (or III.) 
772. Adrian I. 

780. Paul IV. 



784. Tarasius. 

793. * Athelard. 

795. Leo III. 

804. (al. 807.) * Wulfred. 

806. Nicephorus. 



Councils from the Year 604 to 814. 



604. * Worcester (celebration of 

Easter, &c.).. 

605. * Canterbury (abbey of St. 

Peter and St. Paul). 

— London (under Augustin ; 

concerning marriages). 
610. Rome. 

— Toledo. 

614. Egara. 

615. Paris V. (national council 

and diet ; on discipline). 
61 9. Seville (national council and 
diet ; respecting Church 
property, and against 
Monophysites), 

625. Rheims (on discipline). 

626. Constantinople (in favour 

of Monothelites). 

630. * Lenia, in Ireland (con- 
cerning Easter). 

633. Alexandria (in favour of 
Monothelitic doctrines). 

— Toledo (on doctrine and 

discipline). 

636. Toledo. 

638. Toledo. 

638. Constantinople (reception 
of the Ecthesis ; in favour 
of Monothelites). 

640, 641. Rome (against the 
Monothelites). 

644. Chalon on Seine (on disci- 
pline). 

646. Africa (against Monothe- 
lites). 

646. Toledo (on discipline). 



648. Rome (against Monothe- 
lites). 
649* Thessalonica. 

— Rome (Lateran : — Ecthesis 

and Typus condemned). 
653. Toledo (in support of the 
four general councils). 

655. Toledo (Church property). 

656. Toledo (on discipline). 

659. Malay le Roi (on disci- 

pline). 

660. Nantes (on discipline). 
664. * Whitby (on discipline). 

666. Merida (on discipline). 

667. Rome. 

670. Bourdeaux (on discipline). 
673. * Hertford (celebration of 

Easter). 
670. Aujtun. 
675. Toledo (on discipline). 

— Braga. 

679. Milan, France (concerning 
Monothelitic doctrines). 

679. Rome. 

680. * Hapfeld ' (Anglican, or 

Anglo-Saxon; under The- 
odore \ against Monothe- 
lites). 

680. Rome. 

680 and 681. Constantinople 
III. The Sixth General 
(against the Monothe- 
lites). 

681. Toledo. 

683. Toledo. 

684. Toledo. 



n 3 



182 



FROM THE DEATH OF GREGORY THE FIRST {Third 



68S. Toledo. 
689. Rouen. 

691. Saragossa (on discipline). 

692. Constantinople — Quini- 

sextum ; trullanum 
(on discipline). 

693. Toledo (on discipline). 

694. Toledo (on discipline). 

— * Beaconsfield (immunities 
of churches and monas- 
teries). 

697. * Berkhampstead. 

698. Aquiieia (Tria Capitula con- 

demned). 
701. Toledo. 

703. * Nesterfield (against Wil- 

frid, Archbishop of York). 

704. Rome (Wilfrid absolved). 

705. * Near the river Nidda, in 

Northumberland (Wilfrid 
received again by English 
bishops). 

712. Constantinople (in favour of 
Monothelite doctrines ; 
the Sixth General Council 
declared null, and its acts 
burnt). 

715. Constantinople (against Mo- 
nothelites ; in support of 
theSixthGeneralCouncil). 

720. Rome. 

730. Rome (in favour of image- 

worship). 

731. Constantinople (against 

image -worship). 

732. Rome (in support of image- 

worship). 

742. Germany (on discipline). 

743. Rome. 

— Leptinse (Lestines). 

744. Soissons. 

745. Germany. 

— Rome. 

747. * Cloveshoo, or Abingdon. 
752. Mentz. 



754. Constantinople 

image-worship). 

755. Vern (on discipline). 

756 * England (under Cuthbert. 
Feast of St. Boniface). 

— Compeigne. 

— Attigny. 

766. Jerusalem (in favour of 

image- worship). 

767. (al. 796.) Gentilly. 

768. Ratisbon. 

769. Rome (Lateran ; in support 

of image-worship ; the 
Council of Greece in 754 
anathematised). 
774. Rome. 

777. Paderborn (council and 

diet). 

778. Rome (Lateran.) 
780. Paderborn. 

782. Cologne. 

782. 785. Paderborn. 

787- Nic^a II. The Seventh 
General (image-wor- 
ship re-established). 

— In England, one under the 

archbishop of York, and 
another under the arch- 
bishop of Canterbury, in 
presence of papal legates. 

792. Ratisbon. 

793. * Verulam (abbey of St. 

Alban's founded). 

794. Frankfort - on - the - Maine 

(against image-worship ; 
decision of Seventh Ge- 
neral Council rejected ; 
against Adoptians). 

796. Friuli (against Adoptians ; 
double procession of the 
Holy Ghost asserted). 

799. Ratisbon (on discipline). 
— * Beaconsfield (Church pro- 
perty). 



Period. 



TO THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE. 



183 



799. 


* Finkley (observance of 


809. 


Constantinople. 




Easter). 


— 


Aix-la-Chapelle (procession 


— 


Rome. Aix-la-Chapelle 




of the Holy Ghost). 




(against Adoptians). 


813. 


Aries. Rheims. Tours. 


800. 


* Cloveshoo (matters of 




Chalon. Mentz. Aix-la- 




faith). 




Chapelle (on discipline). 


— 


Rome. 


814. 


Constantinople (in favour of 


803. 


Aix-la-Chapelle. 




image-worship). 


807. 


Saltzburg (fourfold partition 
of tithes). 







END OF THE THIRD PERIOD. 



N 4 



PERIOD IV. 



814 



815 



FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE TO THE 
PONTIFICATE OF GREGORY VII. 



814—1073. 



Louis the Pious, Emp. West. 
(Leo V. the Armenian, Emp. East.) 
The weak reign of Louis was favourable to the conso- 
lidation and advancement of papal power. The emperor 
himself was disposed to submit to the arguments of the 
champions of ecclesiastical authority and superstition ; 
and the rebellion of his sons furnished an advantageous 
opportunity for papal interference, which was carefully 
improved. 

The friendly relations which subsisted between the 
Franks and the Danes were favourable to the introduction 
of Christianity into Denmark, which had been hitherto 
prevented. 

Leo V. (the Armenian) declares against image-worship, 
notwithstanding the opposition made by Nicephorus, 
Patriarch of Constantinople, and the Abbot Theodore 
Studites. 

Temporary suppression of Image-worship. 

Theodore Cassiteras, Patriarch of Constantinople, in 
the room of Nicephorus. A council at Constantinople 
forbids the worship of images. Theodore Studites and 
the monks persevere in their attachment to the cause of 



817 



FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE, ETC. 185 

Agobard, Archbishop of Lyons, 816 — 840, protested 
against the prevailing superstition in the worship of pic- 
tures and images, and the adoration of saints. He reproved 
the clergy for paying more attention to the art of chant- 
ing than to the study of Scripture. 

Canons and chapters formally established among the 
clergy of France by the Diet and Council of Aix-la-Cha- 
pelle (Regula Aquisgranensis), comprising the previous 
enactments of the Council of Mentz. Order of Canon- 
esses Regular founded. 

Benedict of Aniane in Languedoc attempts to establish a 
new rule for the reformation of monasteries, founded 
upon the existing Benedictine institutes (Congregatio 
monachorum) . 

During the early part of this period (until the tenth 
century), the schools of the monasteries continued to che- 
rish an assiduous study of Scripture, with the commenta- 
ries of the Fathers, especially of Augustin ; but, in oppo- 
sition to this scriptural and practical system of study and 
exposition, a contemplative mystical theology insinuated 
itself into the Western Church from the East, supported 
by the spurious writings which went under the name of 
Dionysius the Areopagite. Partly in connexion with 
this mysticism appeared also the germs of a speculative 
dialectic system of theology (scholastic), the representative 
of which was John Scotus Erigena (distinction between 
negative and positive theology). 



820 



\ Theophanes, historian. 

In the course of this century Adoptian tenets sink into 
oblivion. 

Michael II. (B alb us) Emp. East. 

This emperor was dissatisfied with the dominant clergy, 
and with many doctrines of the Church. 

Personally opposed to the superstitious use of images, 
he endeavoured, for political reasons, to effect a reconcili- 
ation between the two parties at issue on the subject, and 
permitted the (private) use of images. 



186 FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE (Fourth 

Foundation of the dynasty of the Taherites at Cho- 
rassan. Division of the Arabian monarchy in the East. 

Decline of the Western Empire. Internal dissensions and 
wars. 



Propagation of Christianity in Bulgaria. Persecution. 



821 f Theodulph, Bishop of Orleans. He had endeavoured 
to promote scriptural preaching. 

T Benedict of Aniane. 

822 Rabanus Maurus, Abbot of Fulda. 



Ebbo, Archbishop of Rheims, appointed missionary 
for Denmark and the North of Europe at the Diet of 
Attigny. His appointment confirmed by the pope. 
Without much effect. 

The Emperor Louis performs penance. 
823 Crete taken by the Arabians (Candia). 



824 The friends of image-worship, not satisfied with the em- 
peror's conciliatory measures, accuse him of heresy. He 
repels the accusation in a defence of himself addressed to 
the Pope and the Emperor Louis the Pious. 

825 A council, assembled at Paris, declares the adherence 
of the Gallican Church to the Caroline principles re- 
specting the use of images, and transmits its decrees to 
the pope. The two churches retain their respective sen- 
timents and customs in this matter. 



826 After a series of efforts on the part of Louis to plant 

Christianity in Denmark, Harald I., King of the Danes, 
was baptized this year. Ansgar appointed missionary in 
Denmark. He began his work by instructing the 
children of slaves. 
The greater part of Sicily in the hands of the Saracens. 



f Theodore, Abbot of the Studium at Constantinople. 






8^7 * Egbert, King of all England, 



Period.) to the pontificate of Gregory vii. 187 

End of the Saxon Heptarchy. 



The Emperor Michael Balbus sends to Louis the Pious 
the (spurious) works of Dionysius the Areopagite. 
| Nicephorus. 



Harald, unwisely zealous in the overthrow of idolatry, 
driven out of Jutland. (829.) Ansgar, after the deposi- 
tion of Harald, obliged to leave Jutland, preaches in 
Sweden. First church in Sweden. 

Louis of France yields more and more to the claims of 
temporal power and authority on the part of the bishops, 
and their exemption from civil jurisdiction. 
Theophilus, Emp. East. 



Gottschalk, a monk of Orbais, seeks to renounce the 
monastic life ; permission given by the Council of Mentz ; 
but Rabanus Maurus, Abbot of Fulda, prevents his 
release by prevailing upon Louis to ordain that all Oblati 
(persons dedicated to the monastic life by their parents, 
as was Gottschalk), as well as others, should be bound 
to the perpetual observance of monastic rules. 

The Church lends its sanction to the barbarous custom 
of Ordeals. 

The Emperor Theophilus publishes an edict prohibiting 
all use of pictures and images in churches. 



Gregory IV. appoints November as the month for the 
celebration of the Festival of All Saints, already intro- 
duced by Boniface. 

First rebellion of the sons of Louis. 
Christianity preached in Sweden. 
Louis, with the sanction of the pope, founds the 
archbishopric of Hamburg. Ansgar, Archbishop, formally 
commissioned by the pope to undertake the conversion 
of the Northern nations. Ansgar gains permission from 
Horic, King of Denmark, to found a church in that 
country. 



188 FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE (Fourth 

831 The doctrine of Transubstantiation clearly denned and 

boldly maintained by Paschasius Radbert, a monk, and 
afterwards abbot, of Corbey. He appealed, in support 
of his doctrine, to an alleged miraculous appearance of 
the blood of Christ in the place of the consecrated ele- 
ment. His doctrine, however, met with opposition, 
especially from the pen of Rabanus Maurus (De Corpore 
et Sanguine Domini). 



834 



Claude, Bishop of Turin, opposes the superstitious use 
of relics and of the sign of the cross, and the worship 
of saints and images. 



833 Second rebellion of the three elder sons of Louis 

against their father. Louis deposed, clothed in the garb 
of a penitent, and confined in a monastery. 

Archbishops Ebbo, Agobard, and other prelates, take 
part in the rebellion. Other bishops retain their alle- 
giance. Gregory advances to the support of Lothaire, 
but meets with an unfavourable reception from the 
bishops of the imperial party. 



Louis restored. 
Continued quarrels and wars in France. 
Ebbo, Agobard, and other bishops deposed. 
Louis receives absolution from the Church before re- 
suming the government to which he had been restored. 



Ansgar founds a school and monastery at Hamburg, 
and preaches Christianity in the neighbourhood. 

The popes take advantage of the weakness and distraction 
of the Western Empire to strengthen and increase their au- 
thority over princes and bishops. But in these efforts they 
continue to encounter opposition. 

About this time (8*29 — 836) the Pseudo-Isidorian Decre- 
tals were published, — compiled (probably by some mem- 
ber of the Gallican Church) with a view to support the 
claims of the papacy. 



Period.) to the pontificate of Gregory vn. 189 

This collection was given to the world under the name 
of Isidore of Seville, to whom a revision of the Dionysian 
Decretals had been formerly ascribed (see above a. 635) ; 
but it is manifestly spurious, and professes to contain de- 
cretals of the popes before Siricius, from the very first 
times. The chief objects of the forgery appear to have 
been, the depression of the metropolitan power — the 
exaltation of Romish supremacy — the establishment of the 
independence of the Church — and of the inviolability of 
the spiritual power. 

Haimo, Bishop of Halberstadt. 
"f Hilduin, Abbot of St. Denys. He translated the 
(spurious) works of Dionysius the Areopagite. 
t Agobard. "j" Eginhard. 



The caliphate declines rapidly, in consequence of the 
establishment of independent dynasties in Africa and 
parts of Asia, and the growing power of the body-guard 
of the caliphs (Turks). 

Ravages of the Normans, who were violent opponents 
of Christianity. 

"f Claude, Bishop of Turin. 
By a diligent study of the Scriptures and the works of 
Augustin, he was led to discover and denounce many of 
the prevailing errors and corruptions of his times. He 
inveighed against the superstitious use of pictures and 
of the sign of the cross, and against the worship of saints, 
insisting upon the paramount importance of practical 
piety. Several of the clergy, and even a pope, Pascal I., 
declared against him. He protested against the usurped 
papal authority itself. He enjoyed the protection of the 
emperor. 



Quarrels between the sons of Louis respecting the 
division of the empire. Battle of Fontenay. 
Michael III. Emp. East, 
(under his mother, Theodora, until 857). 



190 FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE {Fourth 

842 After the death of Theophilus, the regents, Theoctistus 
and Manuel, with the Empress Theodora, restore the 
worship of images. A council at Constantinople confirms 
the decree of the Seventh General Council ; and images 
are gradually restored to their places in the high church 
of that city. In commemoration of this event, and in 
honour of all zealously orthodox emperors and patriarchs, 
the Greek Church afterwards established the Festival of 
Orthodoxy. 

843 Treaty of Verdun for the partition of the Western 
Empire. Italy, Germany, and France, formed into 
separate states. Lothaire, Emperor of Italy, &c. ; 
Louis, King of Germany ; Charles the Bald, King of 
France. 

(Origin of the kingdom of France, properly so called.) 
"f Jonas, Bishop of Orleans, distinguished by his pro- 
test against the superstitious adoration of images, and his 
exhortations to practical piety. 

844 The bishops assembled in the Council of Thionville 
style themselves Vicars of Christ. 

Sergius introduces the custom of assuming a new name 
upon election to the papal chair. 

Paschasius Radbert, Abbot of Corbey. 
Doctrine of the Eucharist. 

On the publication of a second edition of Radbert's 
work on the Body and Blood of the Lord, Charles the 
Bald desired Ratramn to give his opinion on the sub- 
ject. Ratramn writes against the doctrine of Transub- 
stantiation, and maintains the doctrine of a spiritual 
presence of Christ in the eucharist vouchsafed to faith 
and the faithful. 

Ratramn's work did little towards correcting the pre- 
valent errors concerning the sacred elements, especially 
as it contained expressions themselves savouring of the 
doctrine of Transubstantiation (e.g. convertitur panis in 
corpus Christi, operante invisibiliter Spiritu S.). Only a 
few divines (Walafried Strabo, Druthmar, Florus Magister) 
agreed with Ratramn in his partial opposition to error. 






Period.) to the pontificate of Gregory vii. 191 

Scotus, in his treatise " De Eucharistia" (now lost), took 
part with Ratramn; but the doctrine of Transubstantiation 
had taken deep root, and continued to prevail. 



Cruel persecution of the Paulicians ; the Empress 
Theodora having resolved to exterminate the sect. Those 
who escaped fled for protection to the Saracens, by whom 
they were received as enemies of the Greeks. They 
founded a town (Tephrica) on the borders of the Greek 
territory, from which place they carried on hostile opera- 
tions ; and here their doctrine was preserved, — a seed 
destined to produce much fruit in succeeding centuries. 



John Scotus Erigena at the court of Charles the Bald. 
He translated the (spurious) works of Dionysius the 
Areopagite, and laid the foundation of the scholastic sys- 
tem of theology, maintaining the insufficiency of doctrines 
founded solely on testimonies of Scripture and the writ- 
ings of the Fathers, and contending that the Christian 
religion and doctrine could be, and ought to be, deduced 
philosophically by a priori reasoning, thus reversing the 
maxim of Augustin " Fides praecedit intellectum." He 
distinguished also between negative and positive theology. 



Rabanus Maurus, Archbishop of Mentz. 



Predestinarian Controversy. 
During the sixth century, the whole Augustinian system 
of doctrine concerning predestination received the stamp 
of ecclesiastical authority ; but many of the clergy evinced 
a disposition to explain away or to conceal the more harsh 
positions of this system, and to incline to the more mode- 
rate views of Augustin, as stated in his book " De Voca- 
tione Gentium," regarding a plain and decisive statement 
of the doctrine of predestination as dangerous. About this 
time, the difference between the strict and more lax fol- 
lowers of Augustin became matter of open acknowledgment 
and debate. Gottschalk, in his monastery, had diligently 
studied the works of Augustin, and had become an enthu- 
siastic advocate of the doctrine of absolute predestination. 



192 FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE (Fourth 

He regarded the large number of his contemporaries, who 
refused to state the question in accordance with his views, 
as no better than Semipelagians ; and at length, on oc- 
casion of a pilgrimage to Rome, he openly charged them 
with Semipelagian error in the presence of the Bishop of 
Verona. This took place in the year 847. He taught 
the doctrines of election and reprobation under the title 
of " a twofold predestination." 

Rabanus Maurus takes part against Gottschalk, who 
maintains the strict Augustinian doctrines concerning 
848 predestination. At the Council of Mentz (848), Gottschalk 
appears before Louis and Raban, where he is excommu- 
nicated as a false teacher, and delivered over to his me- 
tropolitan, Hincmar, Archbishop of Rheims. He was 
brought by him before the Council of Chiersy in 849, 
and, refusing to retract his alleged errors, he was flogged 
as a contumacious monk, and sentenced to perpetual im- 
prisonment in the monastery of Hautevilliers. He re- 
mained in confinement twenty years, still persevering in 
his opinions, which he embodied in his " Confessions." 



Cyril sent by Michael III. as a missionary to the 
Charazes (about the Crimea), at their request. 

849 Bishopric of Bremen united to the archbishopric of 
Hamburg. 

j" Walafried Strabo, 
Prudentius, Bishop of Troyes. Epistola ad Hincmarum, 
&c. 

850 Rise of the Feudal System. 
The crown weak and dependent; the power of the 

bishops continually increasing. The successors of Char- 
lemagne were abjectly submissive to the ecclesiastical 
rulers. 

The history of the female pope, Joan, said to have been 
head of the Church between the pontificates of Leo IV. 
and Benedict III., is probably a fiction of the eleventh 
century. Perhaps it was originally designed as a satire 



Period.) to the pontificate of Gregory vii. 193 

on the vices of the Popes John X., XL, and XII., who 
reigned during the tenth century. 

Ratramn, De Praedestinatione. 
Christian Druthmar (Grammaticus), author of a literal 
or grammatical commentary on the Gospel of St. Mat- 
thew. 

Deplorable ignorance ■prevails among all orders of Chris- 
tians. Many of the clergy are illiterate. 

Great abuses in appointments to ecclesiastical offices, and 
in the administration of Church property. 

Patron Saints. 



j" Haimo, Bishop of Halberstadt. 

Predestinarian controversy. 

The hasty condemnation and unjust treatment of Gotts- 
chalk probably tended to raise up many advocates of his 
opinions. About this time, his cause and doctrines were 
defended against Hincmar by Prudentius, Bishop of 
Troyes, Ratramn, and Servatus Lupus, Abbot of Fer- 
rieres. Hincmar sought the assistance of Scotus Erigena 
in the controversy. After Scotus had written (De Prae- 
destinatione Dei contra Gotteschalcum), the tenets of 
Gottschalk were defended by Prudentius, Florus Ma- 
gister, and Remigius. 

Hincmar seeks to gain the stamp of ecclesiastical 
authority in favour of his opinions. By his influence, the 
Second Council of Chiersy, held in the presence of Charles 
the Bald, publishes four propositions (Quatuor Capitula 
Carisiacensia) in opposition to the tenets of Gottschalk 
and his part}'. These contained not a contradiction, but 
only a modification, of the Augustinian doctrine. 

Servatus Lupus : Liber de Tribus Quasstionibus ; De 
Libero Arbitrio ; De Praedestinatione Bonorum et Ma- 
lorum ; De Sanguinis Christi superflua Taxatione. 

Prudentius : Tractatus de Praedestinatione contra 
Johannem Scotum. 

Florus Magister (of Lyons) : Liber de Praedestina- 
tione contra Scoti erroneas Definitiones. 



194 FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE (Fourth 

Remigius (Archbishop of Lyons) : De Tribus Epistolis 
(against Hincmar, &c). 
855 By the influence of Remigius, the Council of Valence 

publishes six propositions in opposition to the Four 
Capitula of the late Council of Chiersy. These contain 
a modification of the tenets of Gottschalk. The differ- 
ence was now rather in terms than in substance : both 
parties built, in fact, upon the Augustinian or Anti-semi- 
pelagian system. 



Continued subdivisions and dismemberment of the 
Western Empire. 

Lothaire II. King of Lorraine, &c. 

* Ethel wolf makes, or perhaps renews, a grant 
(of tithes ?) to the Church. 

# Ethelwolf undertakes a pilgrimage to Rome. 

The Bulgarians manifest a disposition to receive Chris- 
tianity. 

Christianity had hitherto made little progress in Sweden. 
Ansgar now labours in that country, and succeeds in 
founding a church. He leaves Erimbert to carry on the 
work there, and devotes himself, during the remainder of 
his life, as Archbishop of Hamburgh and Bremen, to the 
conversion of the Danes, with uncommon piety, industry, 
and zeal. 

Cyril and Methodius, Apostles of the Slavi. Cyril trans- 
lates the Bible into the Slavonian language. 



856 t Rabanus Maurus, Archbishop of Mentz. 



858 Kingdom of Navarre founded. 



Ignatius, Patriarch of Constantinople, deposed by the 
profligate Bardas, regent during the minority of Michael 
III. Photius made patriarch. Ignatius refers his cause 
to Nicholas, who sends two bishops to Constantinople, as 
legates, to examine and decide. 

The power of the Papacy increases greatly during the pon- 
tificate of Nicholas. 



Period.) to the pontificate of Gregory vii. 195 

The Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals begin to acquire 
general currency and credit. Pope Nicholas I. cited 
them as genuine. Objections against their genuineness 
overborne by the voice of authority. 

(They were held in high repute until the Reformation, 
when the forgery was exposed. Romish writers at first 
defended them as genuine ; but at length abandoned the 
position.) 

Hincmar and Remigius agree to unite in a common 
exposition of faith, to be published by a council. The 
council never held. Hincmar continues to write against 
Gottschalk; and difference of opinion on the disputed 
point continues in the Church. 



Bogoris, King of the Bulgarians, professes Christianity. 
After a short struggle with his heathen subjects, Christi- 
anity was established in his dominions. 



The papal legates agree with the Council of Constan- 
tinople, in confirming the deposition of Ignatius and ap- 
pointment of Photius. 



Lothaire II., of Thuringia, anxious to put away his 
queen Theutberga, in favour of the licentious Waldrade. 
Archbishops of Cologne and Treves favour his design. 
Council of Aix-la-Chapelle, held this year, pronounces 
the divorce. Hincmar of Rheims protests against the 
decree. 

The Russian Monarchy founded by Ruric. 
Olaf Trygvesen attempts to plant Christianity in 
Iceland by force ; but without effect. In the course of 
the next century, the Gospel was gradually propagated in 
that country. 

The Council of Mentz confirms the decree of Aix-la- 
Chapelle. But Nicholas declares it null, and deposes the 
Archbishops of Cologne and Treves. 

o 2 



196 FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE (Fourth 

Moravians apply to the Greek Church for missionaries. 
Cyril and Methodius sent to them. 



863 Hincmar, at the Council of Soissons, deposes Rothad, 

Bishop of Soissons, notwithstanding his appeal to the 
pope. 

In a council at Rome, Nicholas excommunicates his 
legates, declares Photius deposed, and recognises Ignatius 
as the Patriarch of Constantinople. 

86-i The deposed archbishops of Cologne and Treves pro- 

test against the conduct of the pope, as being an undue 
usurpation of authority by one who is no more than their 
equal ; but in vain. Nicholas perseveres in maintain- 
ing the sanctity and inviolability of marriage, against 
Lothaire. 

Nicholas humbles Hincmar, the strenuous defender of 
the liberty of the Gallican National Church. He com- 
mands him either to restore Rothad forthwith, or to 
submit the examination of his case to Rome ; maintaining 
that the pope alone is sovereign judge in the affairs of 
bishops, and that no council can pronounce sentence con- 
cerning them except by his authority. He supports these 
principles by reference to the Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals. 
Rothad restored to his bishopric by the pope in 865. 



Frequent discoveries of bones and relics of saints, &c. 
long since dead, many of whom had been hitherto un- 
known or forgotten. 



Anastasius, Librarian at Rome, fl. 
865 (al. 851.) t Paschasius Radbert. 



Lothaire obliged to receive again Theutberga as his 
queen. Waldrade sent to Rome to do penance there. 

j* Ansgar, Apostle of the North. After his death arose 
many obstructions to the propagation of Christianity in 
Denmark and Sweden ; but it eventually retained its 
ground in those countries. 
866 Christianity had been introduced into Bulgaria from 



Period.) to the pontificate of Gregory vii. 197 

the Greek church; but Bogoris, after a communication 
with Nicholas, prefers the jurisdiction of Rome to that of 
Constantinople, and forms a connexion with the Roman 
see. 

to 871. * Conquests and ravages of the Danes in 
England. 

Basil, Emp. East. 
Beginning of the Macedonian dynasty. 

The court of Constantinople had espoused the cause of 
Photius, in opposition to Ignatius; but Basil is now inclined 
to favour the latter. 

During the reign of Basil, Crete and Sicily are reco- 
vered from the Arabs. 



Photius convenes a council of Oriental bishops at Con- 
stantinople, in which the pope is (pro forma) deposed and 
excommunicated. The Roman Church charged with 
maintaining sundry errors, especially in the doctrine re- 
lating to the Holy Ghost, and with having corrupted the 
Niceno-Constantinopolitan creed. 

From this period we may date the open and final 

Schism between the Eastern and Western 
Churches. 

Besides the controversy respecting the procession of the 
Holy Ghost, there are many other causes of disagreement 
between the Western and Greek Churches. The former 
received only 50, the latter 85, Apostolical Canons as 
genuine; the former forbad priests, the latter permitted 
them (except bishops), to live with their wives after 
ordination, if previously married; the former denied, 
the latter affirmed, that the patriarch of Constantinople 
was equal in rank to the pope of Rome ; the former 
permitted, the latter forbad, fasting on Saturdays, the 
eating of blood, &c. and the representation of Christ 
under the figure of a lamb. Lastly, also, a dispute had 
arisen between the patriarch and the pope concerning 
jurisdiction over Bulgaria. 

to 869. Basil invites Adrian to decide between the 
o 3 



198 FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE (Fourth 

claims of Photius and Ignatius. A council at Rome 
(868) annuls the acts of the late council at Constantinople, 
deposes Photius, and recognises Ignatius as patriarch. 
All this was confirmed by a new council at Constan- 
tinople (869). 

§53 Moravians incline to a connexion with Rome. Cyril 

and Methodius invited to Rome. Cyril dies there. Me- 
thodius returns as bishop of the Moravian Church. 



The Canons of Worms contain a total prohibition of mar- 
riage for all the clergy. 

T Ratramn (otherwise called Bertram). 



869 The kingdom of Lothaire II. divided, after his death, 

between Charles the Bald and Louis the German. 

The pope asserts the rights of Louis II. ; Hincmar of 
Rheims espouses the cause of Charles the Bald. 



Gottschalk dies in confinement. Refusing to retract, 
he is denied the privilege of partaking of the eucharist 
before his death. 



87O All Latin priests compelled to quit Bulgaria. 



Charles the Bald at first asserts the rights of the tem- 
poral power and the national church of France against 
the claims of the pope. He supports Hincmar against 
Nicholas. 
871 * Alfred the Great, King of England. 



Hincmar of Rheims, with the Council of Douzi, deposes 
his nephew Hincmar, Bishop of Laon. The pope, claim- 
ing to be the only judge of bishops, according to the 
forged Decretals, protests against their proceedings. Hinc- 
mar, backed by the power of Charles, maintains his 
ground. He inveighs strongly against the validity of the 
Decretals. 



Period.) to the pontificate of Gregory vii. 199 

871 The Paulicians had continued to harass the neighbour- 

ing Greeks from Tephrica. After the destruction of 
their chief town by Basil, which took place this year, 
they continued to exist as a separate party, and were 
zealous in the propagation of their doctrines, especially in 
Bulgaria. 

George, Metropolitan of Nicomedia, remarkable for his 
zeal in advancing the honour of the Virgin Mary. 
Masses in honour of saints. 



Charles the Bald, in hope of being made emperor by 
the favour of the pope, yields to the papal claims of eccle- 
siastical monarchy, and is ready to sacrifice the rights of 
the civil governor and of the national church. 

Notwithstanding the protestations of Hincmar, Anse- 
gisus, Archbishop of Sens, is appointed vicar apostolic in 
France. 

875 Charles the Bald crowned Emperor and king of Italy. 
Charles the Bald resigns the imperial right of giving 

consent to the consecration of the bishops of Rome, and 
then confirming the election. He accepts the empire as 
a donation from the pope. 

The bishop of Rome is now styled Papa Universalis, 
Vicarius Petri et Pauli. 

The connection of the Moravian Church with Rome 
confirmed. 

t Ado, Archbishop of V T ienne, martyrologist. 

876 The Mohammedans push their conquests as far as Rome ; 
are bought off by a yearly tribute. 

The kingdom of Germany divided. 



877 The doctrine of the merit of good works (especially 

such as benefactions to the Church and almsgiving) had 
long been established. Charles the Bald, in making a 
donation to a monastery, in the year 877, says, — Si 
servorum Dei utilitatibus subveniendo conferimus, pro- 
futurum nobis hoc ad agternam beatitudinem fore, nullo 
modo ambigimus. 

o 4 



200 FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE (Fourth 

The Russians evince a disposition to embrace Chris- 
tianity. They request the presence of a Greek bishop. 
Subsequently, hostilities between Greeks and Russians 
retarded the progress of Christianity in Russia. 



878 Violent contests between Rome and Constantinople re- 

specting the jurisdiction of Bulgaria, j Ignatius. Photius 
again Patriarch of Constantinople. 



* The Danes, having been reduced by Alfred, receive 
permission to settle in England, on condition of their em- 
bracing Christianity; — baptized, — with Guthrun their 
king. 

# Alfred is said to have instituted a literary society at 
Oxford, and even to have founded a college there (Uni- 
versity College). But the establishment of the Univer- 
sity of Oxford must be referred to the beginning of the 
thirteenth century. 

#■ It is probable, from the omission of the second com- 
mandment in the laws of Alfred, that image-worship was 
now established in England. If so, the practice was of 
recent introduction in this country. 
879 Foundation of the kingdom of Burgundy Cisjurana ; 

the bishops bestow it upon Boson, the pope's favourite. 
Christians at Kiev, in Russia. 



Papal legates at Constantinople, with a view to settle 
differences. The pope promises to recognise Photius as 
patriarch on condition of his seeking forgiveness for his 
offences from the Church of Rome, and foregoing all 
claims upon Bulgaria. Photius not disposed to yield so 
far. The pope pronounces a fresh anathema against him, 
and all who should recognise him as patriarch. 

Methodius accused of celebrating divine service in the 
Slavonian language. The Pope, John VIII., prohibits 
the use of a vernacular tongue in the celebration of the 
mass, but sanctions it in preaching. 



Period.) to the pontificate of Gregory vn. 201 

Methodius, having defended his practice at Rome 
(880), obtains from the pope a remarkable permission to 
celebrate all offices of divine worship in the Slavonian 
language, only with an injunction to read the gospel in 
Greek or Latin before reading it in Slavonian, as a 
mark of respect. 

* Saxon translation of the Psalms by Alfred. That 
prince published also the works of Orosius, Bede, and 
Boethius, in Saxon, and a translation of the Pastoral of 
Gregory. 

Charles the Fat, King of Italy. 



f Hincmar, Archbishop of Rheims. 

Charles the Fat, as sole monarch, re-unites the Western 
Empire.. 

* Alfred sent an embassy to the Syrian Christians in 
India. 

Leo VI. (the Philosopher) Emp. East. 
Photius deposed by the emperor ; but no real recon- 
ciliation with Rome took place. 



-*- T John Scotus Erigena. 



Charles deposed. 
Western Empire finally dismembered. 
Arnulph elected Emperor of Germany. 
The Crown henceforth elective. 
The kingdom of Burgundy Transjurane founded by 
Rudolph. 

Italy a distinct kingdom. 



The new emperor of Germany swears allegiance to 
the pope. 

Photius dies in exile. After his death the disputes 
between the Greek and Latin Churches continued. Nor 



202 



894 



898 
899 

End of 

THE 

Ninth 
Cen- 
tury. 



FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE (Fourth 

was a cordial and permanent agreement between the East 
and West ever effected; although, in the course of the 
following (tenth) century, the violence of the contest con- 
siderably abated. 

The King of the Bohemians baptized by Methodius. 
After this there was a long struggle between Paganism 
and Christianity in Bohemia. 

Charles the Simple, King of France. 
Louis, Emperor of Germany. 



Ecclesiastical Supremacy. 

Bishops now not only claim part with princes in the 
government of their kingdoms, but require princes them- 
selves to be subject to the Church. The pope had already 
told an emperor that he occupied his throne chiefly for 
the purpose of protecting the Church. Quarrels between 
different princes had greatly contributed to the establish- 
ment of this ecclesiastical supremacy. 

Exemptions of monasteries from episcopal jurisdiction, and 
their immediate subjection to the pope ; — assertion of the 
principle that bishops derived their power from the pope ; — 
general councils convened by command of the pope ; — appeals 
from General Councils to the pope. 

The celibacy of the clergy had now given rise to scan- 
dalous vices, and abuses beyond number. 

The wealth of the Church continues to be greatly aug- 
mented by means of superstition and imposture. 

In the West, the theory of Christian morals had now 
suffered fresh debasement by means of translations of the 
mystic writings attributed to Dionysius the Areopagite. 

Christian doctrine was obscured and deteriorated by the 
controversies which were agitated during this century 
concerning image-worship, the eucharist, and predes- 
tination. But the very existence of these controversies, 
and various passages in the writings of authors of this 
date show that some remnants of great Christian truth 
were at least partially retained. 



Period.) to the pontificate of Gregory vii. 203 



End< 

medans, had now become dominant in Egypt. 



OF The Monophysites, by the assistance of the Moham- 

NlNTH 

Cen- 
tury. 

The Festivals of St. Michael the Archangel, of All 
Saints, and of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary, were 
introduced in the Frankish churches during this cen- 
tury. 

(But it was not until the thirteenth century that the 
bodily ascension of the Virgin was taught.) 



Christianity propagated from Moravia to Bohemia. 



Schools and Literary Institutions suffer decay during this 
century. 
Attempts were made to refute Mohammedan errors ; 
but the age did not possess divines equal to the task. 



Scandalous practices for obtaining the pontifical dignity 
prevail about this time. 



Aristocratical government of the nobles in Rome and 
its neighbourhood. 

Christianity introduced among the Hungarians from 
Constantinople. 

Turks obtain authority in the Caliphate of Bagdad. 
Foundation of the Dynasty of the Fatimites in Western 
Africa. 

The canons of Trosley provide for the maintenance of 
the rights, privileges, and revenues of the clergy. Tithes 
declared due, not only from the produce of the soil, but 
from the fruits of labour and industry. N.B. From the 
eighth century until the eleventh, claims for the payment 
of tithes were continually enforced, and frequently re- 
sisted. 

During the greater part of this century the election of 



204 FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE (Fourth 

popes was influenced by a faction in the state. Men of 
the most corrupt morals and dissolute lives were now 
continually placed at the head of the Church. 

Theological literature was now at its lowest ebb. The 
efforts which had been made by Alfred the Great for the 
continuance and promotion of sound religious learning 
remained ineffectual. 

Controversy was hushed in ignorance and apathy. 



The worship of saints ; as supposed intercessors with God, 
had continually increased. It was now universally prac- 
tised, and in high repute. Many churches and monas- 
teries were erected and richly endowed in honour of these 
imaginary favourites. 
910 The Monastery of Clugny, 

founded by Berno ; who follows up the efforts of Bene- 
dict of Aniane for the reformation of monastic orders, by 
uniting several societies under one common head. 



911 Alexander, Emp. East. 
Rollo, the Dane, having obtained the cession of Nor- 
mandy, is baptized. He assumes the title of Robert, 
Duke of Normandy. 

912 CONSTANTINE VII. (PORPHYROGENITUS) EMP. EAST 
(under his mother, Zoe). 



Persecution of Christians in Denmark under King 



Gorm. 



t Moses Barcepha, a Jacobite. 
Simeon Metaphrastes, jl. 



916 Berenger I. King of Italy, Emperor of the West. 

919 Rom anus (Lecapenus) Emp. East, 

with his three sons, Christopher, Stephen, Constantine 

VIII. 

Henry the Fowler, King of Germany. 

923 Lorraine finally re-united to the crown of Germany. 

924 to 940. # Athelstan, King of England. 



Period.) to the pontificate of Gregory vii. 205 

* During this reign, Christianity continually gains a 
firmer footing in England. 

During the former half of this century, the Hungarians 
make desolating inroads into Germany and Italy. 



| Berno. Odo (927 — 941) prosecutes his plans. The 
monastery of Clugny under its early abbots (after Berno 
and Odo, Aymard to 948, Mayol to 994, Odilo to 1048) 
distinguished by the severity of its discipline and its strict 
observance of ascetic rules, by its zealous and efficient 
labours in the education of youth, and in the cause of art 
and science. 

The two kingdoms of Burgundy united under Ro- 
dolph II. 

The pope presents to the monastery of Corbey a rib of 
the Evangelist St. Matthew, and a relic of the Apostle 
St. Andrew. 



Henry I. defeats the Hungarians. 



Henry procures from Gorm the toleration of Chris- 
tianity in Denmark. 

Fierce contests between the Heathen and Christian 
parties in Bohemia. 

The Caliphs of Bagdad lose their political power, which 
remains in the hands of Ahmed the Buyide and his de- 
scendants, under the title of Emir al Omrah. 
Otho the Great, King of Germany. 



Hakon, King of Norway, a Christian, attempts to esta- 
blish Christianity in his dominions, but without effect. 
He died in 950. 

Boleslas I. King of Bohemia ; under him, Paganism 
was in the ascendant. 



Anthropomorphites condemned as heretics. 



206 



FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE (Fourth 

About this time Unni, Archbishop of Hamburg and 
Bremen, dies in Sweden, where he had laboured for the 
propagation of the Gospel with great success. Mission- 
aries, who were sent by his successors, prosecuted the 
work. 

Great opposition to Christianity in Bohemia. War 
with the empire fourteen years (936 — 920). 



945 Constantine VII. Emp. East, restored. 

Berenger II. King of Italy. 
Boleslas compelled by Otho I. to permit the restoration 
of the Christian Church in Bohemia. 

Gylas, Hungarian prince, baptized at Constantinople. 
Harald II. King of Denmark, embraces Christianity. 
950 Continual civil wars in France between the barons 

throughout this century. 



The differences which existed between the Greek and 
Latin Churches, and those which had arisen within the 
latter concerning predestination and the eucharist, were 
not settled ; but, amidst the barbarism of this century, 
controversy was suspended. 

A very general expectation of the approaching end of 
the world prevails. 

During this century, erroneous doctrines concerning 
purgatory, the veneration of saints, and the eucharist, gain 
ground. (The opinion of some persons, who maintained 
that the Archangel Michael says mass every Monday in 
heaven, was condemned as heretical.) 



The spiritual character of the superior clergy is now, to a 
great extent, merged in that of secular princes, or military 
commanders. 

■* Dunstan, Abbot of Glastonbury, endeavours to re- 
form the Church by establishing the rule of Benedict in 
the English monasteries, and enforcing the celibacy of 
the clergy. 



Period.) to the pontificate of Gregory vii. 207 

950 t Eutychius, Bishop of Alexandria. 

CEcumenius fl. 



Otho invades Italy. Berenger submits. 



* Christianity introduced among the Normans in Ire- 
land. 

Marriage of the clergy strictly prohibited by the 
Council of Augsburg. 

Baptism of bells by the pope. 



Otho drives the Hungarians out of Italy. 



Olga, a Russian princess, baptized at Constantinople. 
Adelbert afterwards preaches the Gospel in Russia. The 
general conversion of the Russian people proceeds, how- 
ever, but slowly. 

Romanus II. Emp. East. 



The Bulgarians conform to the Church of Rome. 



Otho the Great resumes the imperial right of con- 
firming the election of popes (see 875). He proceeds 
to appoint popes by his own authority. 



t Atto, Bishop of Vercelli. He wrote a commentary 
on the Epistles of St. Paul. 



The collegiate bodies of clergy established by Chro- 
degang partake of the general corruption of the order. 
The canonical clergy aim chiefly to render themselves 
independent of the bishops, and to secure their respective 
shares of the collegiate income (prebends). 



Otho, King of France, makes a second expedition into 
Italy. Berenger dethroned. 



208 FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE (Fourth 

Otho crowned King of Italy and Emperor, 
From this time to 1508 no king of Germany took the 
title of emperor until after he had been crowned by the 
pope. 

962 * Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury, imposes upon 
Edgar seven years' penance. 

963 Nicephorus II. {Phocas) Emp. East. 
The emperor (Otho), enraged at the perfidy of the 

pope, caused him to be deposed by a council held in St. 
Peter's Church at Rome. Leo VIII. made pope in his 
room. 

Otho confirmed the grants of Charlemagne to the pope. 

965 — 975. Nicephorus makes successful expeditions against 
the Caliphate, and extends the Eastern Empire. Cyprus, 
Cilicia, and Antioch, recovered. 

In the East, Nicephorus enacts that no^bishop shall be 
consecrated without consent of the emperor : — this law 
was soon after repealed by Basil. 

Christianity propagated from Bohemia to Poland. 

966 Micislaus, Duke of Poland, baptized. He founds the 
bishopric of Posen, and endeavours to establish Chris- 
tianity in Poland. 

Harald Harfragre, King of Norway, suppresses idolatry. 



f Flodoard of Rheims. 



Q57 Otho II. joint Emperor of the West. 

Boleslas II. King of Bohemia. Christianity in the 
ascendant, and finally established in his dominions. After 
this time, Paganism gradually becomes extinct in those 
parts. 

Many bishoprics founded in Germany about this time. 
The emperor exercises the right of investiture. 



968 f Luitprand, Bishop of Cremona. 



The Fatimite Caliphs of Africa in possession of Egypt, 
Syria, and Sicily. Grand Cairo founded. 



Period.) to the pontificate of Gregory vii. 209 

John Zimisces, Emp. East. 
Successes against the Bulgarians in Syria. 
Otho and his successors bestowed large grants of land 
upon the bishops; who received towns, counties, and 
entire dukedoms, with the prerogatives of royalty, such as 
justiciary powers, the right of coining money, and of 
levying tolls and other revenues. 

The great power of the clergy becomes highly injurious 
to the imperial authority. 



* Marriage of the clergy in England forbidden, under 
pain of deprivation. 

# In England, violent disputes between the married 
clergy and the monks prevailed about this time. Dun- 
stan, Archbishop of Canterbury, was a great patron of 
the monks. 

The Emperor, John Zimisces, removes a great part of 
the Paulicians to Philippopolis in Thrace, where he gives 
them a settlement. This circumstance contributed to 
the propagation of their tenets in Europe ; and to their 
influence may perhaps be traced the rise of various sects 
of mystics in the Western Churches, such as existed 
during the tenth and eleventh centuries in Italy, France, 
and Germany. The Paulicians were charged with hold- 
ing Manichsean or Gnostic opinions ; but they were chiefly 
distinguished by their strict and zealous observance of 
practical religion. The sects which afterwards arose 
conformed to the external rites and worship of the domi- 
nant church, and were distinguished chiefly by the 
strictness of their lives, and by aiming at higher degrees 
of piety, and purer morals, than such as generally prevailed 
among the Catholics of their day. 



Harald, King of Denmark, having made peace with 
Otho, is baptized, and becomes zealous for the propagation 
of Christianity in his dominions. 

Christianity makes progress in Hungary, under the 
auspices of the Prince Geysa. 



210 FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE (Fourth 

973 Bishopric of Prague founded. 

The pope (Boniface VII.) deposed and banished for 
his crimes. 

Otho II. Emp. West. 



974 f Ratherius, Bishop of Verona ; distinguished by his 

zealous efforts to check the corruption of the clergy, and 
to promote their usefulness. 



97 «5 Harald, King of Denmark, having conquered Norway 

in 962, endeavours to establish Christianity in that 
country. His attempts are resisted, and the Norwegians, 
under Haken, throw off his yoke. 



976 Basil II. and Constantine IX. Emp. East. 



| Simeon Metaphrastes. 

Reformation of the order of Canons. Distinction 
between Canons Regular and Canons Secular. 



982 Greenland discovered by Norwegians. Christianity 

introduced soon afterwards. 

Otho makes Geisler Archbishop of Magdeburg, in 
place of another chosen by the chapter. 

Slavonians return to Paganism, having been formerly 
compelled by the Germans to embrace Christianity. 



983 Otho III. Emp. West 

(under his mother Theophania). 



984 T Roswitha, a Latin poetess. 

987 Hugh Capet, King of France. 

End of the Carlovignian dynasty ; foundation of the 
Capetian. 



988 Wladimir (Basil I.) Grand-duke of Kiev, invites Christ- 

ian bishops and clergy to Russia, and founds several 



Period.) to the pontificate of Gregory vii. 211 

bishoprics (one archbishopric at Kiev, another at Novo- 
gorod). 

The Greek ritual was introduced into Russia by Wla- 
dimir. Schools and convents founded. 



* T Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury. 
* Danes make the English tributary. 



Hugh Capet procures the deposition of Arnulph, Bishop 
of Rheims, by a council held in that city, and the election 
of Gerbert'in his room. Absolute supremacy of the pope, 
and the claims founded upon the forged Decretals, con- 
temptuously denied. 

Harald, King of Denmark, deposed by the influence 
of the pagan party in his dominions, with his son Sveyn 
at their head. Sveyn king; destruction of Christian 
establishments, and suppression of Christianity in Den- 
mark. 

Peter Urseolo II. Doge of Venice; regarded by the 
Venetians as the founder of their state. 

First instance on record of the Canonization of a Saint 
(Ulric, Bishop of Augsburg), by the pope, in a Lateran 
Council. 

Continued growth of Superstition. Worship of Saints and 
Images increases. 

Saturday is distinguished by special worship, in honour 
of the Virgin Mary. 

Some suppose that Rosaries came into use before the 
close of this century. 

The Eucharist. Gerbert maintained that it is best to 
say simply, without further definition, and in accordance 
with our Saviour's own words, that the bread and wine in 
the eucharist are the body and blood of Christ (but to 
be apprehended only by faith). This plea for moderation 
in the statement of the doctrine produced, however, but 
little effect. Transubstantiation was generally believed ; 

p 2 



212 FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE (Fourth 

and in the course of the following century a contradiction 
of the doctrine was accounted heresy. 

996 Otho III. crowned Emperor. 

997 Robert, King of France. Stephen I. King of Hungary. 



A struggle for the papacy between Gregory V. and 
John XVI. or XVII. 

Robert was not disposed to persevere in the struggle 
maintained by Hugh Capet against the papal pretensions. 
Council of Rheims, held this year under the presidency 
of the pope's legate, annuls the acts of the former council. 
Gerbert deposed. Arnulph restored. 

Adalbert of Prague preaches the Gospel in Prussia, 
where he suffers persecution, and is put to death, 997. 
The Gospel makes no progress in that country. 

Micislaus, Duke of Poland, places his country under the 
protection of St. Peter, i. e. the Pope. 

Christians in Spain overpowered by the Arabs. 

(995 — 1000.) Christianity established in Norway by the 
King, Olaf Trygvesen, who attributed his former successes 
in battle to a shield bearing a figure of Christ, which 
had been given him by a Saxon priest. He exercised 
great violence and cruelty towards the heathen priests, 
and was killed in battle in the year 1000, when the 
kings of Sweden and Denmark became masters of his 
country until 1017. They tolerated all religions in 
Norway. 

998 Feast of All Souls, instituted at Clugny, for the re- 
demption of souls from purgatory; it having been said 
that, on occasion of an eruption of flame in Sicily, the 
devils had been heard to lament the fact, that many souls 
had been delivered from their torments by means of alms- 
giving and prayers, and especially by those of the monks 
of Clugny. 

999 Gerbert (Archbishop of Ravenna, 998) made Pope 
(Silvester II.) by the influence of the emperor, whose tutor 
he had been. 

This year Silvester first suggests the idea of the Cru- 



Period.) to the pontificate of Gregory vii. 213 

sades, in an " Epistola ex persona Hierusalem devastates 
ad Universalem Ecclesiam." 

Robert, King of France, compelled by the pope to 
divorce his queen Bertha. 

(997 — 1038.) Christianity finally established inHunyary, 
under King Stephen L, and propagated thence to Tran- 
sylvania and Wallachia, by force of arms. Finally estab- 
lished in Bohemia (999). 



The system of Ecclesiastical Benefices may now be 
considered as completed and established. 

It had now become usual for papal legates to convene 
and preside in councils assembled in foreign lands. 



1000 Huns, Avars, and other Barbarians, — also, the Persians 
and Russians, — harass the Eastern Empire. 

The Seljukian Turks conquer Asia Minor. 
Norman conquests in Italy. 



The Greek Church is rent by numerous schisms. 



The canons of the Council of Poitiers are directed 
against the marriage of the clergy, and simony. 

About this time, all persons were required to pray for 
souls in purgatory by the authority of the pope. 
1001 Institution of an annual procession with relics between 
Corbey and Amiens. On these occasions many miracles 
are said to have been wrought. 



1002 Henry II. Emperor of Germany, and King of 

Italy. 



From this time, the dukes of Poland make many fruit- 
less attempts to subdue the Pomeranians, and to introduce 
Christianity in the train of conquest. Boleslas I. founded 
a bishopric at Colberg about the year 1000: which, how- 
ever, did not survive the death of its first bishop. 

Boleslas I. (995 — 1025) promotes the spread of Christ- 
ianity in Poland. This prince was very submissive to the 

p 3 



214 FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE (Fourth 

superior clergy, not presuming to sit in their presence, and 
submitting to all the penances and burdens they imposed. 
Sultan Mahmoud, a Turk, spreads his dominion and 
Mohammedanism from the Caspian Sea to the Ganges. 

1003 T Gerbert. He planted the seeds of a literary taste 
in Rheims, and in France generally. 



In Denmark, Sveyn is more tolerant of Christianity 
than formerly, from political considerations. 

During the fresh disturbances which arose about this 
time in Italy, the counts of Tuscoli obtained such influ- 
ence, that the papal dignity became completely in posses- 
sion of their family, in which it remained for a long time, 
as it were, hereditary. 

1007 Bruno, surnamed Boniface, with eighteen companions, 
preaches the Gospel, and attempts to found a church in 
Prussia, but without effect : himself and his whole com- 
pany were put to death in 1008. No efforts made for 
the conversion of the Prussians for two centuries after- 
wards. 

Fulbert, pupil of Gerbert, Bishop of Chartres. A 
school of theology flourished under his auspices. He was 
a zealous promoter of the worship of the Virgin Mary. 

1008 Olaf, King of Sweden, baptized; first Christian king 
of that nation. He promotes the cause of Christianity in 
his dominions, chiefly by the aid of English clergy. First 
Swedish bishopric founded. 

" A strange mixture, both of doctrine and worship, long 
prevailed in Sweden, where Jesus Christ was profanely 
associated with Odin, and the pagan goddess Freya con- 
founded with the Virgin." (Koch.) 

1009 Sultan Hakem in Egypt persecutes the Christians. 



During this period, the papal chair is usually obtained by 
the most nefarious means. In general, the popes themselves 
are men of corrupt morals and profligate lives. 



Period.) to the pontificate of Gregory vii. 215 

1010 A sect in Aquitaine rejects the use of the sign of the 
cross and baptism. In the latter particular they agreed 
with the Paulicians, and with several sects of the Middle 
Ages, who substituted imposition of hands for baptism. 



1016 * Canute the Great, King of England. 

Canute was devoted to the interests of the Church of 
Rome. 

Pontius, Bishop of Aries, grants indulgence, or absolu- 
tion of sins, on consideration of contributions in aid of 
building churches. 

About this time a congregation of Hermits is founded 
in a part of the Apennines, Campus Malduli, Camaldoli. 
Camaldulensian Order. 



(1014 — 1035.) Christianity finally established in Den- 
mark, under the auspices of Canute the Great, who had 
married Emma, a Christian princess, widow of the Eng- 
lish king, Ethelred. 

(1017—1033.) Olaf II. King of Norway, promotes the 
final establishment of Christianity in his dominions, partly 
by persuasion, partly by force ; founds churches and 
schools. Venerated after his death as a saint. 
Sardinia recovered from the Arabs. 



The Brethren of Orleans, 
a sect denying the meritoriousness of human works ; pro- 
pagating certain Gnostic errors; professing to receive 
no doctrine but such as is written by the Holy Spirit in 
the inner man. Leaders of the sect summoned before an 
assembly of bishops. Thirteen members put to death. 



1018 Bulgaria again a province of the Greek Empire. 



1022 T Notker Labeo, Abbot of St. Gall. He translated 
some books of Scripture. 

p 4 



216 FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE (Fourth 



1024 
1025 



Continued struggles of the See of Rome with the emperors 
respecting the independency of papal elections, 

Conrad II. Emperor of Germany. 

Beginning of the Franconian or Salic dynasty. 

CONSTANTINE, SOLE EMPEROR OF THE EAST. 



Nestorians said to be still engaged in propagating the 
Gospel among the Tartars. 

Christians, in many parts, suffer great persecutions 
from Saracens and Turks. 



A sect, in the diocese of Arras and Cambray, insists 
upon spirituality of mind and the exercise of practical re- 
ligion, to the disparagement of external rites, and especi- 
ally of infant baptism. Persuaded by Gerhard to cease 
their opposition to the Church. 

A sect near Turin maintains that the whole history of 
Christ is to be regarded as only an allegorical representa- 
tion of the spiritual or religious life. Several members 
of this sect put to death. 



1026 (al- 1005.) t Burkard, Bishop of Worms. 

1027 End °f tne Caliphate of the Ommiyades in Spain. 

1028 Roman us II. Em p. East. 



t Fulbert, Bishop of Chartres. 



1031 Henry I. King of France. 

1032 Conrad unites the Kingdom of Burgundy to the Ger- 
man crown. 

Norman conquests in Italy and Sicily. 

1033 The French bishops and abbots appoint Friday in 
every week to be kept sacred as a day of penance, in which 
injuries should be forgiven, and all quarrels and litiga- 
tions should be suspended. 



Period.) to the pontificate of Gregory vii. 217 

1033 Benedict raised to the Papal See, at the age of ten years, 
for money. His life was most profligate and scandalous. 



1034 Michael IV. Emp. East. 

1036 Jaroslav, head of all Russia. He exerted his in- 
fluence (from 1019 until 1054) in favour of the esta- 
blishment of Christianity in his dominions. 

1038 Togrul Beg, Emir al Omrah. 



An order of Cenobites founded at Vallombrosa, in the 
Apennines, by John Gualbert. 



1039 Henry III. Emperor of Germany. 

(Under him the Bohemians and Hungarians become 
tributary.) 
1041 Michael V. Emp. East. 



Treuga Dei, or the cessation of all hostilities and liti- 
gations during the latter part of the week, established by 
authority of the Church, first in Aquitaine, afterwards 
also in neighbouring countries. (See 1033.) 



1042 CONSTANTINE X. (MONOMACHTJS) EMP. EAST. 

* Edward the Confessor, King of England. Saxon line 
restored. 

Lanfranc, a monk in the monastery of Bee in Nor- 
mandy. 

Theophanes Ceramius, Nil us Doxipatrius, fl. 
1045 Bruno, Bishop of Wurtzburg. 



1046 The Council of Sutry affirms the right of the emperor 
to nominate to the Holy See. Plan of the emperor for the 
reformation of ecclesiastical abuses. 

" The whole of Christendom composed, as it were, a 
single and individual republic, of which the pope was the 
spiritual head, and the emperor the secular. The duty of 
the latter, as head and patron of the Church, was to take 
cognisance that nothing should be done contrary to the 



218 FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE (Fourth 

general interests of Christianity. It was his part to pro- 
tect the Catholic Church, to be the guardian of its pre- 
servation, to convocate its general councils, and exercise 
such rights as the nature of his office and the interests of 
Christianity seemed to demand." (Koch.) 

From Otho the Great to Henry IV. all the Roman 
pontiffs were chosen, or at least confirmed, by the empe- 
ror. 

Three rival popes deposed by the Council of Sutry. 

From this time the rupture between the Greek and Latin 
Churches became more complete and irremediable than ever. 
Michael Cerularius, the Patriarchof Constantinople, caused 
all churches and monasteries belonging to the Latins in 
Constantinople to be shut up. The ancient controversy 
renewed, and the breach widened by agitating a question 
concerning the use of unleavened bread in the eucharist. 



False doctrines respecting the power of the pope, saints, 
the merit of good works, and transubstantiation, acquire 
consistency and strength. 

Capital punishment for (alleged) heresy had now become 
general. 

Profligacy and vice abound among people of all ranks 
and conditions, especially among the clergy. 

Pilgrimages to the Holy Land frequent and highly 
esteemed, especially in connection with the belief in the 
approaching end of the world, which still prevails. 



1 048 Berenger declares his doubts concerning the doctrine of 
Transubstantiation, and prefers the work of Scotus on the 
eucharist to that of Paschasius Radbert. 

1050 Leo condemns Berenger and his doctrine in a council 
at Rome. The Council of Vercelli, in the same year, 
zealously condemns the tenets of Scotus and Berenger, 
concerning the eucharist. The treatise of Scotus burnt. 
Berenger imprisoned before the assembling of the latter 
council. 

Dismemberment and decline of the Mohammedan Cali- 
phate in Spain. 



Period.) to the pontificate of Gregory vii. 219 

During the latter part of this century (1041 — 1090), 
the Normans in South Italy conquer Apulia, Calabria, and 
Sicily, from the Greeks. 



Idolatry still exists in Sweden, especially in connection 
with a celebrated temple at Upsal. 



Nicetas Pectoratus, fl.; an advocate of the Greek Church 
against the Latins. 

Michael Psellius, and Michael Cerularius, fl. 



During this century, the popes are zealous in forcing 
the Roman customs and ceremonies upon other churches; 
e. g. in Spain. Strong representations concerning the ne- 
cessity of celebrating divine worship in Latin. 

Church discipline, as in past centuries, is weak, and the 
subject of great abuse. 

Offences against the pope and clergy were visited with 
more severe punishment than moral transgressions. 

The sentence of excommunication against temporal 
princes was often employed as a means of effecting revo- 
lutions, or for other political purposes. 

Immunities, &c. granted to Crusaders rendered impo- 
sition of penance, in a great degree, nugatory. 



1052 A sect > near Gorlac, insists upon abstinence from ani- 
mal food. Members of this sect put to death by order 
of the emperor. 

1053 Michael Cerularius, assisted by Leo, Metropolitan 
of Bulgaria, vehemently attacks the doctrines and cere- 
monies of the Romish Church. He complains especially 
of the use of unleavened bread in the eucharist, which he 
denounces as heretical ; and brands the adherents of the 
custom with the name of Azymites. 

Leo published a defence of the Latin Church. 
The emperor is unwilling, from political motives, that 
the controversy between Michael and Leo should proceed. 

1054 Legates sent from Rome to Constantinople to settle the 



220 



FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE (Fourth 



dispute between Michael and Leo. A Greek monk, Nicetas 
Pectoratus, compelled to burn his book, " Against the 
Latins," in presence of the legates. Michael highly ex- 
asperated. Supported by the clergy and people against 
the emperor. Patriarch and Pope excommunicate each 
other. 

From this time Hildebrand obtains continually in- 
creasing influence with the popes and superior clergy. 
He was soon at the head of a party in the Church, and 
exerted his influence to carry forward a plan for checking 
ecclesiastical disorders, advancing the clergy in efficiency 
and reputation, and promoting the independence of the 
Church with regard to the temporal powers. With this 
view, efforts were made to suppress simony, and to re- 
strain the licentiousness of the clergy — especially to en- 
force the practice of clerical celibacy — as immediate 
means of diminishing the influence of princes, nobles, and 
wealthy individuals, in relation to ecclesiastical appoint- 
ments. 

1054 At this time the greater part of the temporal possessions 
of the Holy See had passed into the hands of the emperor 
and neighbouring princes. 

Leo sends commissioners plenipotentiary into various 
parts of Europe, with a view to promote this Reformation. 
Origin of papal influence by means of legates. 



Berenger declares, at the Council of Tours, that he does 
not deny the presence of Christ in the eucharist, but re- 
gards the bread and wine after consecration as his body 
and blood. Hildebrand, papal legate in France, declares 
himself satisfied with this declaration. 



Theodora, Empress of the East. 
(End of the Macedonian dynasty.) 
1055 The Sultan Togrul Beg captures Bagdad, and becomes 
master of the Caliphate. 

Michael VI. (Stratioticus) Emp. East. 
Henry IV. Emperor of Germany. 
1057 Isaac Comnenus, Emp. East. 



Period.) TO THE pontificate of Gregory vii. 221 

1059 CONSTANTINE IX. (DUCAS) EMP. EAST. 

Robert Guiscard created Duke of Apulia and Calabria 
by the Pope, to whom he swears allegiance. 



The right of election to the pontifical chair vested in 
the college of cardinals, with consent of the people, and 
approbation of the emperor. 

Beginning of disputes between the popes and emperors re- 
specting Investiture and nomination to the Holy See. These 
disputes last until 1122. 



Berenger goes to Rome, hoping to obtain a declaration 
of the pope in favour of his views of the eucharist. The 
opposite party (under Humbert) too strong for him. At 
a council, Berenger is required to subscribe a declaration 
that, after consecration, the bread and wine are the true 
body and blood of Christ, and that his body is sensibly 
broken by the hands of the priest, and pressed by the 
teeth of the communicant. Berenger subscribes. But 
after his return to France he openly retracted his confes- 
sion, asserted his former doctrines against Lan franc, and 
inveighed violently against the Church of Rome. Lanfranc 
writes against Berenger (De Eucharistise Sacramento 
Liber). Berenger replies (De Sacra Ccena Liber). 



Nicholas II. enforces the relaxed discipline of the 
Canons Regular. 
1059 Order of the Brethren of St. Antony. 

(Many miraculous cures, said to be wrought by the 
pretended relics of St. Antony and St. Didier, lately im- 
ported into Dauphine from Constantinople.) 



1060 Philip I. King of France. 



By a synod at Spalatro, in Dalmatia, the use of the 
Slavonian language in divine worship is prohibited. 
Methodius (confounded with Ulphilas) is declared to 
have been a Gothic heretic. 



222 



1062 
1063 
1064 



FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE (Fourth 

In Arragon, and soon afterwards in Catalonia, the 
Roman liturgy is substituted for the Mozarabic. 



Lanfranc, Abbot of Caen. 



Alp Arslan, Seljukian Sultan. 



Siegfried, Archbishop of Mentz, Giinther of Bamberg, 
and other German and French bishops, undertake a pil- 
grimage to the Holy Land, accompanied by above seven 
thousand devotees. Only about five thousand return. 



1065 f Humbert, advocate of the Western Church against 
the Eastern. 

Idolatry exterminated in Hungary. All Jutland Christ- 
ianised. 

William of Normandy invades England under the sanc- 
tion of a papal grant. 

Alp Arslan zealously propagates Mohammedanism in 
Georgia and Armenia. 

1066 * William the Conqueror, King of England. 

* One third of the land in England now in the hands 
of churchmen. 

* After the Conquest, the erroneous doctrines and 
practices of the Church of Rome begin to take deeper 
root than formerly in England. But the way had already 
been prepared for the admission of such errors. 

William consents to the payment of Peter's Pence ; not 
as a tribute, but as a benefaction; and refuses to do 
homage to the pope for his dominions. 

* He exercised supreme authority in matters eccle- 
siastical as well as civil in England. But many English 
ecclesiastics were ejected from their benefices in favour 
of William's Norman followers, by the interference of 
papal legates. This was a dangerous introduction of 
papal authority into England. William also separated 
the ecclesiastical and civil courts, and thus assisted the 



Period.) to the pontificate of Gregory vii. 223 



1067 
1068 

1069 



1070 

1071 
1072 



clergy in establishing their claims to a separate jurisdic- 
tion. 



EuDociA, Empress of the East. 
Romanus III. (Diogenes) Emp. East. 



Congregation of Hirschau (Congregatio Hirsaugiensis) 
founded, in imitation of that of Clugny. 

N.B. The monastery of Hirschau was founded about 
a.d. 830. 



Lanfranc, Archbishop of Canterbury. 



Alp Arslan takes the Emperor Romanus prisoner. 

Michael VII. Emp. East. 

Sultan Malek Shah. 



Peter Damian. 



During this period, the state and civil governors ac- 
quired considerable influence over the Church, which 
was exerted especially in the way of granting investiture 
to bishops. " The popes used to date their acts from the 
years of the emperor's reign, and to stamp their coin with 
his name ; and all the higher clergy were virtually bound 
and subject to the secular power, by the solemn investi- 
ture of the ring and the crosier. This investiture gave 
to the emperor and other sovereigns the right of nomi- 
nating and confirming bishops, and even of deposing them, 
if they saw cause. It gave them, moreover, the right of 
conferring, at their pleasure, those fiefs and royal prero- 
gatives which the munificence of princes had vested in 
the Church." (Koch.) 

Bishops had become extremely negligent of their 
spiritual duties, notwithstanding provisions and penalties 
designed to enforce the discharge of them. Their chief 
care, in general, was to furnish their friends with a sub- 
sistence from the revenues of the Church, and to trade 



224 FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE (Fourth 

with ecclesiastical benefices. This evil continued, and 
even increased, during the following centuries. 

Archdeacons also, as representatives and commissioners 
of the bishops, were guilty of many flagrant abuses of 
their station and influence ; an evil which subsequently 
led to the abridgment of their authority, and the appoint- 
ment of bishop's officials or vicars. 

The influence of Rome had been greatly increased by 
means of the vices and injustice of temporal princes, as 
well as by dissensions and ambition among the bishops. 
Sometimes princes appealed to Rome against the preten- 
sions of their clergy ; and sometimes the clergy appealed 
against the claims and exactions of princes. Thus both 
parties contributed to establish the power of the pope. 
Such was the case, e. g. with regard to England. 

Monastic Orders. Hitherto the rule of St. Benedict 
(see 817.) was the only one allowed by the Romish 
Church ; and the rule of St. Basil prevailed exclusively 
(as it still does) in the East. 

Disputes between Realists (i, e. those who maintained 
that universals are real things), and Nominalists (who 
contended that they are mere names, or simple abstrac- 
tions). 

The revival of philosophy in the Latin Church, and 
the consequent controversies between the Nominalists 
and Realists, occasioned a remarkable change in the 
method of propounding religious doctrines, which were 
henceforth not only stated in a more logical form than 
hitherto, but also mixed up with metaphysical prin- 
ciples. 



List of Popes, Patriarchs, and Archbishops of 
Canterbury, from the Year 815 to 1070. 

815. Theodorus. 821. Antonius I. 

816. Stephen V. 824. Eugenius II. 

817. Pascal I. 827. Valentine. 



Period.) 



TO THE PONTIFICATE OF GREGORY VII. 



225 



828. 


•Gregory IV. 


928. 


Leo VI. 


830. 


* Theolgild. 


— 


Tryphon. 


— 


* Ceolnoth. 


— . 


* Wulfelm. 


832. 


John VII. 


929. 


Stephen IX. (VIII.) 


842. 


Methodius I. 


931. 


John XI. 


844. 


Sergius II, 


932. 


See of Constantinople vacant. 


846. 


Ignatius. 


933. 


Theophylact. 


847. 


Leo IV. 


936. 


Leo VII. 


855. 


Benedict III. 


939. 


Stephen IX. (or VIII.). 


857. 


Photius. 


941. 


* Odo Severus. 




Ignatius deposed. 


943. 


Martin III. (or II.). 


858. 


Nicholas I. 


946. 


Agapetus II. 




Photius. 


954. 


* Dunstan 


867. 


Adrian II. 


956. 


John XII. 


— 


Ignatius, 


— 


Polyeuchus. 




restored. 


963. 


Leo VIII. 


871. 


* Atheldred. 


964. 


Benedict V. 


872. 


John VIII. 




in opposition to Leo. 


877. 


Photius, 


965. 


John XIII. 




restored. 


970. 


Basil I. 


882. 


Martin II. (or I.). 


972. 


Benedict VI. 


884. 


Adrian III. 


973. 


Boniface VII. 


885. 


Stephen VI. 


974. 


Domnus II. 


886. 


Stephen I. 


— 


Antonius III. 


891. 


FORMOSUS. 


975. 


Benedict VII. 


— 


* Phlegmund. 


See of Constantinople vacant. 


893. 


Antonius II. 


983. 


Nicholas II. 


895. 


Nicholas I. 


984. 


John XIV. 


896. 


Boniface VI. 


986. 


John XV. 


— 


Stephen VII. (or VI.). 


988. 


* Ethelgar. 


897. 


ROMANUS. 


989. 


* Siric. 


898. 


Theodorus II. 


995. 


Sisinnius II. 


— 


John IX. (X.) 


996. 


Gregory V. 


900. 


Benedict IV. 


— . 


* Aluricius. 


903. 


Leo V. 1 

r^ \ rivals. 
Christopher. J 


997. 


Schism between Gregory V. and 






John XVI. (or XVII.) 


905. 


Sergius III. 


999. 


Sylvester II. 




Euthymius I. 


— 


Sergius II. 




Nicholas deposed. 


1003 


. John XVII. (or XVIIL) 


911. 


Anastasius III. 


1005 


. * Elphege. 


— 


Nicholas I. 


1009 


. Sergius IV. 




restored. 


1012 


. Benedict VIII. 


913. 


•Lando. 


1013 


. * Living, or Leovingus. 


914. 


John X. 


1019 


. Eustathius. 


923. 


* Atheln. 


1020 


'. * Agelnoth, or iErthelnot, 


925. 


Stephen II. 


1024 


. John XVIII (or XIX). 



226 



FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE 



{Fourth 



1025. Alexis. 

1033. Benedict IX. 

1038. * Edsine, or Eadsius. 

1043. Michael I. Cerularius. 

1044. Sylvester III. 

Elected in opposition to Bene- 
dict : with whom he after- 
wards shares the papacy. 

Benedict makes a simoniacal 
contract with John Gratian, 
who assumes the title of Gre- 
gory VI. Three popes at 
once. 

All three deposed by the Council 

i of Sutry, which elects 



1046. Clement II. 
1048. Damascus II. 

— Leo IX 
1050. * Robert Gemeticensis. 
1052. * Stigand. 

1054. See of Rome vacant. 

1055. Victor II. 

1057. Stephen IX. 
[1058. Benedict X.] 

1058. Nicholas II. 

1059. Constantine III. 
1061. Alexander II. 
1063. John VIII. Xiphilin. 
1070. * Lanfranc 



Councils from the Year 815 to 1072. 



815. Constantinople (for removal 

of images. — Decrees of Se- 
venth General Council an- 
nulled). 

816. Aix-la-Chapelle (reform of 

monastic abuses). 

— Rome. 

817. Aix-la-Chapelle. 

821. Constantinople. 

822. Thionville (on discipline). 

— * Cloveshoo. 

— Attigny. 

823. Rome. 

— Compeigne. 

824. * Cloveshoo (dispute con- 

cerning the Monastery of 
Westbury). 

825. Paris ; and Aix-la-Chapelle 

(in support of image-wor- 
ship). 

826. Ingelheim. 

— Rome (on discipline). 
829. Mentz. Paris. Lyons. 

Worms. Constantinople. 



832. 
833. 
834. 
835. 
836. 

837. 



841. 
842. 

842. 
844. 

845. 
846. 

847. 



848, 



St. Denis. 

Compeigne. 

St. Denis. 

Thionville. 

Aix-la-Chapelle (Church 
property). 

Aix-la-Chapelle. 

Chiersy (against the liturgi- 
cal works of Amalarius). 

Tours. 

Constantinople (against the 
Iconoclasts). 

Aix-la-Chapelle. 

Thionville. 

Vern. 

Meaux (on discipline). 

Paris. Sens. 

Constantinople. 

Mentz (Church property. 
— Discipline). 

Mentz (opinions of Gotts- 
chalk condemned). 

Limoges. 

Bretagnc. Rome. 



Period.) 



TO THE PONTIFICATE OF GREGORY VII. 



227 



848. Lyons. 


866. Soissons. 


849. Chiersy (Gottschalk con- 


867. Constantinople. 


demned). 


— Troyes. 


— Chartres. 


— Constantinople (Photius de- 


— Paris. 


posed). 


850. Pavia (on discipline). 


868. Worms (on discipline). 


851. *Beningdon, in Mercia (pri- 


— Rome(Photiuscondemned). 


vileges of the monastery of 


869. Metz. 


Croyland). 


— Constantinople ; reckon- 


852. Cordova. 


ed as the Eighth General 


— Mentz (on discipline). 


Council by the Latins 


853. Soissons. Verberia. 


(against Photius). 


— Chiersy (against Gotts- 


870. Vienne. 


chalk). 


— Attigny. 


— Frankfort-on-the-Maine. 


— Cologne. 


— Paris, 


— Spalatro. 


— Rome (on discipline). 


871. Douzi. 


855. Valence. 


— Compeigne. 


— Pavia (on discipline, &c). 


872. Rome. 


— Bonceuil. 


873. Senlis. 


— * Winchester. 


— Cologne. 


857. Chiersy. 


874. Douzi. 


— Mentz. 


— Ravenna. 


858. Worms. 


— Rheims (on discipline). 


— Chiersy. 


875. Rome. 


— Constantinople (against 


876. Pavia. 


Photius). 


— Rome. 


859. Langres. Metz. Saronieres. 


— Pontion. 


860. Aix-la-Chapelle. Coblentz. 


877. Oviedo. 


Mentz. Rome. 


— Compeigne. 


— Tousy. 


— Rome. 


861. Constantinople (in favour of 


— Ravenna. 


Photius). 


— Compeigne. 


— Rome (against Photius). 


878. Rome. 


862. Aix-la-Chapelle. 


— Troyes. 


— Rome. 


879. Rome. Jerusalem. Antioch. 


— Soissons. 


Alexandria (in favour of 


863. Rome (against Photius). 


Photius). 


— Metz. 


879, 880 Constantinople ; 


— Verberia. 


reckoned as the Eighth 


— Rome (against the Council 


General Council by the 


of Metz). 


Greeks (in favour of Pho- 


864. Rome (Lateran). 


tius ; concerning the Ni- 


865. Attigny. 


cene Creed, and the Six 


866. Pavia. 


General Councils). 



Q 2 



228 



FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE 



(Fourth 



881. Fimes (on discipline). 


955. * Llandaff. 


886. Chalon. 


958. Ingelheim. 


887. Cologne. 


963. Constantinople. 


— Tours. 


— Rome. 


888. Mentz. Metz (on disci- 


964. Rome : — two. 


pline). 


967. Rome. 


892. Vienne. 


— Ravenna. 


893. Rheims. 


968. Rome. 


895. Tribur (near Mentz). 


— Ravenna. 


896 (or 897.) Rome (against the 


969. * England (under Dunstan ; 


late Pope Formosus). 


on discipline). 


898. Rome (against the foregoing 


— Rome. 


council). 


971. Rome. 


— Ravenna. 


975. * Winchester (under Dun- 


900. Rheims. 


stan). 


— Lateran. 


— Rome. 


906. Constantinople. 


— Rheims. 


— Barcelona (on discipline). 


978. * Calne. 


909. Trosley. 


979. Ingelheim (on discipline). 


911. Constantinople. 


988. Llandaff. 


920. Constantinople. 


990. Narbonne (Church proper- 


921. Trosley. 


ty). 


922. Coblentz (on discipline). 


991. Rheims. 


923. Rheims. 


992. Aix-la-Chapelle. 


927. Treves (reformation of the 


993. Lateran. 


clergy). 


— Rheims (Church property). 


— Trosley. 


995. Mouson. 


928. * Gratley. 


996. Rome. St. Denis (Church 


931. Altheim (on discipline). 


property). 


— Constantinople. 


997. Pavia. 


932. Ratisbon. 


998. Rome. 


— Erford (on discipline). 


— Ravenna. 


— Dingelfind (reformation of 


1000. Poitiers (on discipline). 


the clergy). 


1001. Rome. 


935. Fimes (Church property). 


1007. Frankfort-on-the~ Maine. 


941. Soissons. 


1009. * Exham, in England (ec- 


943. * Llandaff. 


clesiastical discipline). 


946. Astorga (on discipline). 


— Milan. 


947- Narbonne (on discipline). 


1018. Nimeguen. 


— Verdun. 


1020 — 1024. Several in France. 


948. Mouson. 


1022. Pavia (reformation of the 


— Ingelheim. 


clergy). 


— * London. 


1025. Arras. 


949. Rome. 


1027. Constantinople (on disci- 


952, Augsburg(ondiscipline,&c.) 


pline). 



Perio 


d.) TO THE PONTIFICATE OI 


1 GREGORY VII. 22i) 


1027. 


Rome. 


1059. 


Aries. 


1029. 


Limoges. 


1060. 


Vienne. Tours. 


1031. 


Bourges. Limoges (on dis- 


— 


Toulouse. 




cipline). 


1061. 


Rome. 


1034. 


Several in France. 


— 


Basle. 


1036. 


Tribur, near Mentz (on 


1062. 


Angers (against Berenger). 




discipline). 


1063. 


Rome (against simony). 


1040. 


Venice (on discipline). 


— 


Rouen (in support of the 


1041, 


1042. Several in France. 




doctrine of Transubstan- 




(Treuga Dei). 




tiation). 


1046. 


Sutry. 


1065. 


* London (immunities of 


1047. 


Rome. 




the Abbey of Westmin- 


1049. 


Rome. Pavia. Rheims. 




ster). 




Mentz. 


1066- 


•1067. Constantinople (con- 


1050. 


Rome. Tours. Vercelli. 




cerning marriage). 




Brienne. Paris. Siponto. 


1067. 


Mantua. 


1051. 


Mentz (against marriage 


1068. 


Gironne (Treuga Dei). 




of priests). 


— 


Barcelona. 


1053. 


Mantua. 


— 


Toulouse (against simony). 


— 


Rome. 


1069. 


Mentz. 


1054. 


Constantinople. 


— 


Spalatro (use of Slavonic 


— 


Narbonne. 




language in divine ser- 


1055. 


Mentz. Florence. Angers. 




vice forbidden). 




Lyons. Rouen. 


1070. 


* Winchester and Windsor 


1056. 


Compostello (on disci- 




(in presence of a papal 




pline). 




legate). 


— 


* Llandaff. 


1071. 


Mentz. 


— 


Toulouse (Church pro- 


1072. 


Chalon. 




perty). 


— 


* England. 


1059. 


Sutry. 


— 


Rouen. 


— 


Rome. 


— 


Rome. 



END OF THE FOURTH PERIOD. 



Q 3 



PERIOD V. 

FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII. TO THE 
BEGINNING OF THE REFORMATION. 

1073—1517. 



1073; (Henry IV. Emperor of Germany, 

Michael VII. Emp. East, 
Philip I. King of France, 
# William the Conqueror, King of England). 



Hildebrand, Pope, under the name of 
Gregory VII. 
pursues his plan of restoring religion by establishing a 
Papal Theocracy. He endeavours to reform the clergy, 
and especially to detach them from secular interests and 
pursuits ; and seeks to inspire princes and other laymen 
with respect for the Church, as an independent and 
superior body. The theory of the Pseudo-Isidorian De- 
cretals, which represents the bishop of Rome as uni- 
versal bishop of the Church, begins to be realised. 

Great indignation prevails in Europe on account of 
the oppression of pilgrims in the Holy Land. Gregory 
renews the idea of a Crusade (see a.d. 999), and projects 
the arming of all Christendom for an attack upon the 
common enemy. 

Gregory makes successful efforts for the recovery of 
Church patronage from princes and nobles, in whose 
hands it had rested for several centuries. 



(Fifth Period.) from the accession of Gregory vii. 231 

The Era of Scholastic Theology begins. 
The history of the Scholastic Theology divides itself into 
three periods, 

1. The latter part of the eleventh century and the whole of 
the twelfth teas the period of its origin and development. 

2. During the thirteenth century it flourished at its height. 

3. Throughout the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries it 
ivas on the decline. 

The system of Congregations of monks or monastic 
orders, already established, contributes during this period 
to the restoration of discipline, and general improve- 
ment, in monasteries. 

1074 By the Council of Rome, the strict enforcement of 
celibacy upon the clergy was renewed, and Simony was 
forbidden under the sanction of penalties. Laymen for- 
bidden to confess to married priests, or to attend their per- 
formance of mass, under penalty of excommunication. 

1075 The Council of Rome forbids all lay investiture, or 
appointment to spiritual offices, as simoniacal. 

The pope claims absolute and unlimited dominion over all 
the states of Christendom, as successor of St. Peter and 
vicar of Christ upon earth. 

Inge, King of Sweden, prohibits idolatry within his 
dominions. Christianity now established in Sweden. 
The Pagans rebel. 

Malek Shah, Seljukian Sultan, subdues Egypt and 
Palestine. 

1076 Jerusalem captured by Seljukian Turks. 

The emperor (Henry IV.) refuses to submit to the 
papal claims, and quarrels with the pope. Henry causes 
the Council of Worms to depose the pope; and Gregory, 
in a Council of Rome, excommunicates the emperor, and 
absolves his subjects from their oath of allegiance. He ex- 
communicates also all who took part in the Council of 
Worms. 

1077 Henry performs penance, and submits to the demands 
of the pope. He afterwards unites with the Lombards 
against the pope. 

Q 4 



232 FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII. [Fifth 

From this time the pontiffs regard the empire as a fief of 
the Church. 

Gregory had now begun " to put in execution the pro- 
ject which he had so long been concerting and preparing, 
viz. the erecting of a spiritual despotism, extending to 
priests as well as to kings ; making the supreme pontiff 
the arbiter in all affairs, both civil and ecclesiastical — - 
the bestower of favours, and the dispenser of crowns. 
The basis of this dominion was, that the vicar of Jesus 
Christ ought to be superior to all human power. The 
better to attain his object, he began by withdrawing him- 
self and his clergy from the authority of secular princes. 

" The bishops, vainly flattering themselves with the 
prospect of an imaginary liberty, forgot the valuable gifts 
with which the emperor had loaded them, and enlisted 
under the banners of the pope. They turned against the 
secular princes those arms which the latter had impru- 
dently trusted in their hands." (Koch.) 

By the Council of Rome (1079), bishops were obliged 
to take an oath of fealty and homage to the pope, bind- 
ing themselves to aid and defend " the royal rights of 
St. Peter." 



1078 



Nicephorus III. Em p. East. 
Rodolph of Bavaria supported by the pope as anti-em- 
peror, against Henry : — defeated. 

Continued struggles between Christians and Pagans in 
Sweden. 

Theophylact, fl. 
He may be regarded as the best expositor of Scripture 
whom this age produced. But hermeneutic theology was 
still at a very low ebb. 

t John Xiphilin. 



Gregory cites Berenger to appear at Rome, with a view 
to effect an amicable adjustment of the Eucharistic Contro- 
versy. He requires Berenger to subscribe a confession of 
faith drawn up in moderate terms. Berenger's opponents 



Period.) to the beginning of the reformation. 233 

dissatisfied with this, and disposed to call in question the 
orthodoxy of Gregory himself. Gregory, jealous of his 
reputation for orthodoxy, which was especially valuable 
as a means of carrying out his plan of consolidating a 
papal theocracy, requires Berenger, in a council assem- 
bled the next year, to subscribe a confession, declaring 
that the bread and wine are changed " substantialiter " 
into the body and blood of Christ. Berenger complies — 
renounces his alleged errors, — and returns to France. 
1080 Gregory renews his excommunication of Henry, and 
recognises Rodolph as emperor. Henry causes Gregory 
to be deposed again by the Councils of Mentz and 
Brixen ; and sets up another pope, under the title of 
Clement III. 



1081 



1084 



1080-1083. Henry lays siege to Rome during three 
years. 

Alexius Comnenus, Emp. East. 



Many abuses prevailed in connexion with the so-called 
sacrament of Penance, which had continually acquired 
more and more of an arbitrary and merely external cha- 
racter. The Popes Gregory and Urban denounced these 
abuses, but in vain. 

# Osmond, Bishop of Sarum, frames the Service-book 
" In Usum Sarum.'' 

Use of the Latin Liturgy imposed upon the whole Church 
by Gregory. 

In the Western churches many of the clergy were married, 
notwithstanding all efforts to the contrary. The laws of 
celibacy found great and lasting opposition in some 
parts : e.g. at Milan in France, and in Britain. 

Carthusian order of monks founded by Bruno, at 
Chartreuse (Cartusia), near Grenoble. Strictly ascetic ; 
— monks employed, solitary and silent, in transcribing 
religious books. 

Several princes of Italy and Germany abandon the 



234 FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII. [Fifth 

emperor, and do homage to the pope. William, King of 
England, refuses such submission. 

* In England, churchmen are forbidden to leave the 
kingdom, or to acknowledge any one as pope without 
permission of the king. 

" Gregory pretended to unite in himself the plenary 
exercise both of the ecclesiastical and episcopal power, 
leaving nothing to the archbishops and bishops but the 
title of his lieutenants or vicars. He completely under- 
mined the jurisdiction of the metropolitans and bishops, 
by authorising, in all cases, an appeal to the court of 
Rome, reserving to himself exclusively the cognisance of 
all causes called major; including more especially the 
privilege of judging and deposing bishops. This latter 
privilege had always been vested in provincial councils, 
who exercised it under the authority, and with the con- 
sent of, the secular powers. Gregory abolished this usage, 
and claimed for himself the power of judging the bishops, 
either in person or by his legates, to the exclusion of the 
synodal assemblies. He made himself master of these 
assemblies, and even arrogated the exclusive right of con- 
vocating general councils." (Koch.) 
1 084 Henry gains possession of Rome by treachery. Duke 
Robert Guiscard recovers Rome in favour of Gregory. 



1085 Gregory VII. dies at Salerno. 

The pope is now the absolute monarch of the Church. 
The fiction by which he had been represented as the 
Vicar or Successor of St. Peter in the Church of Rome, is 
turned into the still grosser fiction of his being the 
Vicar of God, or of Christ, for the whole Church upon 
earth. 

Authority of the pope maintained by his absolute 
control of councils, — the immediate subjection of bishops 
to the See of Rome, — appointment to benefices by papal 
mandate, under penalty of excommunication, — appeals to 
Rome from all courts, and in all causes, — general right 
to grant absolution and dispensation, and exclusive power 
of canonization, claimed by the pope, and conceded to 



Period.) to the beginning of the reformation. 235 

him, — taxation of churches, — the mission of papal legates 
with unlimited authority to all parts of Christendom. 

Disputes between the emperor and the pope continue long 
after Gregory's death. 

Christians oppressed by the Seljukian Turks in Asia 
Minor. 



1086 



1087 



1088 
1089 



Penance. Indulgences had hitherto been granted only 
with reference to certain Church penalties, but in this 
year Urban proclaimed the remission of all penalties 
(indulgentia plenaria), on condition of joining an expedi- 
tion against the infidels in Africa. 



Libraries and Schools multiplied. 

The usual course of study comprised the Trivium, 
(grammar, rhetoric, and dialectics,) and the Quadrivium 
(arithmetic, music, geometry, and astronomy). 

During the age of scholastic theology, we meet with 
systematic divisions and classifications of the Divine attri- 
butes for the first time. 



* William II. (Rufus) King of England. 

Rise of the Italian Republics. 
Crusade against the Arabians in Africa. 



(1089 — 1093.) * William Rufus keeps the See of Can- 
terbury vacant during the space of four years, appro- 
priating its revenues. He exercised his cupidity in the 
same manner with regard to other English bishoprics, and 
several abbeys. 

| Berenger. 

* t Lanfranc. Commentary on the Epistles of St. Paul 
and on the Psalms. Treatise on Confession. Disserta- 
tion on the Body and Blood of Christ in the Eucharist, 
against Berenger. Orations. Epistles. 

Lanfranc may be considered as having introduced the 
scholastic theology. 



236 FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII. (Fifth 



1090 
1092 



1093 
1094 



1095 



1096 



to 1097. The Emperor Henry in Italy. 
Death of the Seljukian Sultan Malek Shah. Division 
of his territories. Foundation of the Kingdom of Roum, 
in Asia Minor. Soliman II. Sultan. 

Conrad, son of the Emperor Henry, supported by the 
pope, rebels against his father, but fails. 



Peter (the Hermit) of Amiens receives a commission from 
the pope to preach a Crusade. 

At the Council of Autun, a papal legate excom- 
municates the Emperor Philip I. King of France, and 
Clement III. 

Philip I. King of France, imprisons Ivo, Bishop of 
Chartres, on account of his opposition to his unjust divorce 
of his queen Bertha, and marriage with Bertrade. 

Order of monks of St. Antony founded by Gaston, a 
French nobleman, in gratitude for the recovery of his 
son. Duty of the monks to tend the sick. 

At the Councils of Placentia and Clermont, Urban 
zealously supports the cause of the Crusades. Promises 
of absolution, indulgence, and. eternal life to all who should 
join the expedition. The enterprise undertaken with 
furious ardour. 

Peter the Hermit, and Walter the Pennyless, lead 
forward a mixed multitude, 300,000 of whom perish 
before the Crusaders start, 

The First Crusade, 
under Godfrey of Bouillon, Hugh of Vermandois, 
Robert of Normandy, Robert of Flanders, Stephen of 
Chartres, Raymond of Toulouse, Bohemond, and Tan- 
cred. Number of Crusaders 600,000, besides priests, 
monks, &c. 

The part taken by Urban in promoting the Crusades 
tends greatly to increase his influence and power in the 
Church. As the leader and abettor of a highly popular 
measure, — one which exactly fell in with the taste and dis- 
position of the times, — he soon becomes more than a match 
for his rival Clement. 



Period.) to the beginntng of the reformation. 237 



1097 



1098 



1099 



A second sentence of excommunication against the 
King of France, on account of his divorce, &c. 

* Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury, quarrels with 
Henry, King of England, respecting Investitures. 

William II. agreed to acknowledge Urban as pope, on 
condition of his deposing Anselm. A papal legate re- 
ceived William's acknowledgment, and then confirmed 
Anselm in his see. But Anselm was obliged to flee the 
kingdom. 

The Council of Bari, under Urban, again condemns 
the doctrine of the Greek Church concerning the pro- 
cession of the Holy Ghost. Anselm, Archbishop of 
Canterbury, undertakes the defence of the Latin doc- 
trine. 



Doctrine concerning the Existence of God, 
Anselm is generally regarded as the first writer who 
advanced an ontological proof of the existence of God ; 
and, in fact, he was the first who fully developed this idea, 
which had been started by Augustin. Duns Scotus, Wil- 
liam Occam, and other scholastic writers, however, re- 
jected every a priori argument; and Peter d'Ailly main- 
tained that reason, though it may show the existence of 
God to be probable, can never demonstrate it. Hence 
Des Cartes is ranked as the patron of the ontological 
argument on this subject. 



The Cistercian order of monks founded at Citeaux 
(Cistercium) near Dijon, in the diocese of Chalons, by 
Robert: confirmed by the pope in 1100. Most important 
of the new orders founded about this time ; soon rivals 
that of Clugny. 

Jerusalem taken by the Crusaders, July 15. Order of 
the Hospitalers of St. John of Jerusalem first founded, for 
the cure of the sick. 

Kingdom of Jerusalem founded by Godfrey of Bouillon. 



238 FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII. [Fifth 



End of n general council had been held during this century. 
Ele- The use of Rosaries has now become general in the 
™ H Latin Church. 

Cen- 
tury. Religious flagellation has been introduced: 

And also the celebration of Saturday, in honour of the 

Virgin Mary. 

1100 * Henry I. King of England. 

Councils against Simony. 

1 101 Celibacy of the clergy finally established in Saxony, 
"f* Bruno, founder of the Carthusian order. 



1 102 Boleslas II. King of Poland. 

1103 Division of the Empire of the Seljukides. 

The Bogomili, a Mystic sect, holding some Gnostic 
doctrines, in the Greek Church. (It is probable that many 
who did not hold such doctrines, but merely rejected the 
superstitions of the dominant church, and were sincere 
and serious Christians, were included under this odious 
name.) 

Peter of Bruys denounces some prevalent errors and 
superstitions, such as the mass, mere ceremonial worship, 
&c. But he fell into extremes, denouncing all places of 
worship as needless, opposing the perpetual celebration 
of the Lord's supper, and rejecting infant baptism. 

1105 ^he em P eror ' s second son (Henry) rebels against his 
father. Supported by the pope. Henry IV. compelled 
to abdicate. 

1106 Henry V. Emperor of Germany and King of 

Italy. 

He renews the contest with the pope concerning 
Investitures. 

#■ Quarrel between the archbishop and pope, and the 
King of England (Henry II.), respecting Investitures 
continues. Henry at length submitted to a compromise : 
he gave up the right of Investiture, but churchmen 
agreed to do homage for their temporalities (1107). 

This century is distinguished by continually recurring 



Period.) to the beginning of the reformation. 239 

struggles between the popes on the one side, and other prelates, 
or temporal princes, on the other. 



* In England, Anselm takes great pains to enforce the 
celibacy of the clergy : — he meets with much opposition. 
1 106 Robert of Arbrisselles founds the order of Fontevraud. 

The custom of elevating the Host at the celebration of the 
eucharist had now become prevalent in the West. It was 
of earlier date in the Oriental churches. 

Communion in one kind. — A custom had now been in- 
troduced of administering to communicants in the Lord's 
supper the bread dipped in wine, or sometimes bread 
alone, instead of bread and wine. This innovation was 
opposed at first by Pope Paschal II. and Anselm of Can- 
terbury, and afterwards by Peter Lombard and Albertus 
Magnus. But these Schoolmen maintained the doctrine of 
a concomitantia corporis et sanguinis Christi, i. e* that 
both the body and blood are administered under each 
species ; with which it was easy for others to defend the 
withdrawal of the cup from the laity. 



1 107 At the Council of Troyes, a fruitless attempt was made 
to settle the question respecting Investitures. 

1 1 08 Louis VI. King of France. 
Small Christian states in Palestine and Syria, dependent 

on Jerusalem. 

1110 The emperor marches into Italy against the pope. 
The Italian Republics recognise the emperor of Ger- 
many as their head, but claim sovereign power for them- 
selves. 

1111 The pope made prisoner. He is compelled to concede 
the right of Investiture to the emperor. 

A Lateran Council annuls the forced concessions of the 
pope relating to Investitures, and the contest is renewed. 
The council excommunicates Henry. 



1113 Alexius, Emp. East. 



240 
1113 

1115 



1116 



1118 



FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII. (Fifth 

Bernard retires, with thirty companions, to the new 
monastery of Citeaux. 



j* Ivo, Bishop of Chartres. 
He had maintained that it was not unlawful for emperors 
to invest bishops, &c. with temporal power and dignity ; 
and that the Church needs not require more than that, 
they should lay no claim to a right to invest with spiritual 
authority. This distinction eventually led to the settle- 
ment of the contest respecting Investitures. 



Bernard, now Abbot of Clairvaux, improves the dis- 
cipline and raises the reputation of his order. The 
monastery of Clairvaux became afterwards the head of 
160 other Cistercian (or Bernardine) monasteries in 
France, Germany, England, Ireland, Denmark, Norway, 
and Sweden. 



(1115 — 1124.) Tanchelin, or Tanquelin, an eccentric 
fanatic in Flanders. 

Henry of Lausanne preaches at Mans ; — inveighs 
against the pomp and wealth of the clergy ; — afterwards 
preaches in various parts of Languedoc and Provence. 



The emperor again marches into Italy to maintain his 
cause against the pope. 

John Comnenus, Emp. East. 

Henry supports Gregory VIII. as pope, in opposition to 
Gelasius II. Gelasius excommunicates the emperor and 
his anti-pope. 

The order of St. John of Jerusalem becomes military, 
under Raymond du Puy. (Knights of St. John of Jeru- 
salem.) 

Norbert labours to promote a reformation of the clergy 
in Germany, France, and the Netherlands. 



Basil, leader of the Bogomili, put to death. 



Period.) to the beginning of the reformation. 241 

1119 Gelasius II. compelled to quit Rome: dies in exile. 

Calixtus II., at the Council of Rheims, prohibits all lay 
investiture of bishops and abbots; excommunicates the 
emperor, the anti-pope, and their adherents; and ab- 
solves all the emperor's subjects from their oath of alle- 
giance. 

Godfrey of Vendome (abbot and cardinal) recom- 
mends the separation of spiritual authority and temporal 
dignity in Investitures. Hugo of Fleury suggests that 
princes may be permitted to invest with the sceptre, but 
not with the cross and ring. 



1120 



1121 



1122 



Order of Knights Templar instituted. 
At this time a church at Lubeck is the only one of the 
Slavi, north of the Elbe. 



Arnulph, Bishop of Rochester, recommends that com- 
municants in the eucharist should partake of bread dipped 
in wine. The late popes (Urban and Pascal) had insisted 
upon the administration of both elements, and especially 
the bread. 

The States of Germany insist upon the emperor's making 
peace with the pope. 

Roleslas III. conquers Wratislas, Duke of Pomerania. 
He endeavours to propagate the Gospel among the Pome- 
ranians, at first with little success. 



Attempt at promoting a reformation of the clergy by 
uniting the monastic life with the discharge of spiritual 
functions. In 1121 Norbert, with some companions, re- 
tires to Premontre (Praemonstratum), in the" diocese of 
Laon. — Canonici Regulares. 

Peter Maurice (Venerabilis), Abbot of Clugny, from 
1122 until 1156, restores the discipline and credit of his 
order. 

Dispute respecting Investitures terminated by the 
Concordat of Worms. 



242 FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII. (Fifth 

The emperor empowered to invest with the sceptre, 
but not with the cross and ring. Elections to be free, in 
presence of the emperor or his commissioner. Emperor 
to possess a kind of casting vote in disputed elections. 
" The ties of vassalage which connected the bishops with 
the emperors were still preserved by this transaction, con- 
trary to the intentions of Gregory VII. ; but the emperors, 
being obliged to approve of the persons whom the Church 
should hereafter present, lost their chief influence in the 
elections, and were no longer entitled, as formerly, to 
grant or refuse investiture." (Koch.) 

1123 The Council of Lateran confirms the Concordat of 
Worms. 

1124 Peter of Bruys put to death. A sect of his followers, 
Petrobrusians, survives. Henry of Lausanne becomes 
their leader ; whence they acquire the title Henricians. 



1125 



1126 



Otho, Bishop of Bamberg, labours successfully for the 
conversion of the Pomeranians. Wratislas and many of 
his subjects baptized. 

Christianity established in Pomerania. First Pomera- 
nian bishopric at Wollin. Otho returns to Bamberg. 

Lothaire II. Emperor of Germany. 

Struggles of the Scholastic Tlieology with the more-practical^ 
and the traditional or ecclesiastical, systems. 

Controversy between Abelard and Bernard. 



1128 



The pope formally confirms the rule of Norbert, and 
thus establishes the order of PrcBmonstratensian Canons. 
Norbert, made Archbishop of Magdeburg, labours zeal- 
ously for the propagation of his order until his death in 
1134. 

Otho undertakes a second mission to Pomerania. His 
zeal and intrepidity contribute greatly to the final sub- 
version of Heathenism in that country. 



Period.) to the beginning of the reformation. 248 

Rules for the order of Knights Templar by the Council 
of Troyes. 

1129 Teaching of the Church, By the Council of Toulouse, 
the laity are forbidden to read either the Old or the New 
Testament, except the Psalter ; and that not in the ver- 
nacular tongue. 

1130 Dispute and division at the election of a new pope. 
One party elects Innocent II. ; the other Anacletus II. 
Innocent obliged to flee from Italy to France. 



Roger II. created King of Naples and Sicily by the 
Pope. 

(The Novels, or New Collection of Imperial Institutions, 
found this year at Amalfi in Italy.) 



Extreme Unction in repute 



j" Honorius of Autun. 



1131 Innocent recognised as pope in Germany and France. 

1132 Innocent returns to Italy. 

1133 Innocent at Rome, crowns Lothaire II. The party of 
Anacletus afterwards gain possession of the city, and 
Innocent is obliged to quit. 



About this time, the Gospel appears to have been in- 
troduced among some of the Tartar tribes by the influence 
of one of their chiefs (Presbyter Johannes). His successors 
continued to unite the kingly and sacerdotal dignity, until 
their territory was overrun by the Moguls (1202). 

Christianity now makes some progress among the tribes 
on the banks of the Elbe and Oder. Bishoprics of Havels- 
burg and Brandenburg created about this time. While 
the dukes of Saxony sought to propagate the Gospel in 
these parts by force of arms, some bishops laboured to the 
same purpose with the more legitimate means of persua- 
sion and instruction. 

r 2 



•244 FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII. (Fifth 

Christianity finally established in Sweden. 
Struggles between the Danish clergy and their king. 



1134 Henry of Lausanne condemned to perpetual imprison- 
ment by the Council of Pisa. He escapes, and con- 
tinues to preach in the South of France. 

Arnold of Brescia begins to inveigh against the papal 
system. He maintained that the clergy ought not to 
possess temporalities ; that the revenues of popes, bishops, 
and monasteries ought to be resigned in favour of the 
civil rulers of each state ; and that ministers of the Gospel 
ought to possess no more than a spiritual authority, with 
a subsistence from tithes and voluntary contributions. 



1135 * Stephen, King of England. 

1137 Louis VII. King of France. 



After the death of Anacletus, his party elect Victor IV. 
as pope, but soon submit to Innocent. 



1138 Conrad I. Emperor of Germany. 

First Emperor of the House of Suabia or Hohenstaufen. 



1139 A general council (Lateran II.) recognises Innocent II. 
as pope. Arnold of Brescia condemned : obliged to 
retire into Switzerland. 

# The bishop of Winchester summons the king 
(Stephen) before him to answer for his conduct against 
certain bishops, — claims on behalf of the Church the 
rio-ht of appointing sovereigns, — and declares in favour 
of Matilda and her son. 

Alphonso I. King of Portugal, receives confirmation of 
his title from the Pope, for tribute. 



t Otho, Apostle of Pomerania, 



1140 The Festival of the Immaculate Conception of the 
Virgin Mary introduced. 



Period.) to the beginning of the reformation. 245 

1140 The Council of Constantinople condemns to the flames 
the writings of Constantine Chrysomalus, as propagating 
the doctrines of the Bogomili. 



* Canon Law introduced into England. 



Innocent imposes the obligation of a vow upon the 
Canons Regular. 

The doctrine of Seven Sacraments is established by the 
Schoolmen, about this time. 

The adoration of the Host, and the multiplication of 
" altars " in churches may be traced to this century : a 
natural consequence of the doctrine of Transubstantiation. 

Bernard and others insist upon confession of sins to a 
priest; Peter Lombard and Gratian speak of it as not ab- 
solutely necessary. 

t Hugh of St. Victor. 
1142 Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony and Bavaria. 



1143 



t Abelard. 



Manuel I. (Comnjenus) Emp. East. 

(The Greek Empire regained much of its importance 
under the Comneni.) 

Fiefs of the Western Empire become hereditary. This 
is one great cause of the decline of the imperial authority, 
and the ruin of the empire. 

Tumults at Rome, against the authority of the pope. 
| Innocent II. 

# The power of the Church of Rome in England was 
greatly increased during the reign of Stephen. 

" The kings of Portugal, Arragon, England, Scotland, 
Sardinia, the two Sicilies, and several others, became, in 
course of time, vassals and tributaries to the Papal See ; and 
there is not a doubt that the universal monarchy, the 
scheme of which Gregory VII. had conceived, would have 
been completely established, if some of his successors had 

r 3 



246 FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII. {Fifth 

been endowed with his vast ambition and his superior 
genius." (Koch.) 

About this time, the icealth of the Church was immense. 
Its territories are supposed to have included nearly one half 
of the empire. 

1143 Clemens and Leontius, two Cappadocian bishops, de- 
posed as Bogomili. Soon after, Niphon, a monk cele- 
brated for his study of Scripture, and Cosmas, the pious 
Patriarch of Constantinople, were deposed on the same 
charge. 

1 145 Tumults and seditions at Rome continue ; promoted by 
the doctrines of Arnold of Brescia. The Romans re- 
quest Conrad III. to make Rome the seat of his empire, 
and insist upon rendering " to Caesar the things that are 
Caesar's, and to the Pope the things that are the Pope's/' 
Eugenius obliged to flee from Rome ; but soon finds 
his authority supported by the influence of Bernard of 
Clairvaux. This well-meaning and pious, but mistaken, 
man, advocates the papal authority by his writings (De 
Consideratione, libb. v.). He probably considered only 
the good which might arise from the due exercise of 
power by sovereign pontiffs, forgetting the evils which 
must flow from the (more than probable) abuse of such 
authority, and overlooking the precepts of Scripture on 
the subject. 

Eudon de Stella, or Eon, a fanatic in Bretagne and 
Gascogne. 

1 147 The Second Crusade, 

under the Emperor Conrad, and the King of France, 
Louis VII. ; promoted by the preaching of Bernard of 
Clairvaux. 

This Crusade tends to renew and establish the power of the 
pope, under whose auspices it was undertaken. 

About this time, the Monophysite Armenians, oppressed 
by the Turks, consent to an union with the Church of 



Period.) to the beginning of the reformation. 247 



1147 



1149 



1150 



Rome. Subsequently this union was more or less firm, 
according to political circumstances. 

The pope sends a legate, Cardinal Bishop Alberic, of 
Ostia, accompanied by Bernard, into Languedoc, for the 
suppression of the Henricians. Henry captured ; sentenced 
to perpetual imprisonment by Council of Rheims 1148; 
died 1149. 



Eugenius compels the people of Rome to submit to his 
authority. 

A controversy exists in the Greek Church relating to 
a passage in their liturgy concerning the sacrifice of 
Christ. 

The principal controversies in the Latin Church during 
this century related to the method of studying and teach- 
ing theology; the eucharist; the will of God; the im- 
maculate conception of the Virgin Mary. 



Among the errors finally established by writers of this 
century may be reckoned especially, — the doctrine of 
papal authority ; the nature and value of indulgences ; 
the inexpediency of reading the Scriptures in the ver- 
nacular tongue ; transubstantiation. 

The system of theology had now undergone a remark- 
able change in consequence of the adoption of logic and 
metaphysics, and the foundation of large schools and 
universities, especially that of Paris. The following may be 
described as its general characteristics during this age : — 

1. The foundation consisted of sentences of the Fathers, 
together with passages of Scripture badly interpreted. 

2. The sentences of Fathers were carefully collected 
and arranged. 

3. Some divines received and propounded these doc- 
trines simply; 

4. While others defended and interpreted them by the 
aid of the Aristotelian philosophy; 

5. And others used still greater freedom in philosophi- 
sing upon religious truth and the grounds of it, introduc- 

lt 4 



248 



FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII. 



{Fifth 



1150 
1151 



1152 



1153 



ing the dialectic method (Schoolmen); and these were 
divided among themselves into various parties and classes ; 

6. On which account they were attacked by others, 
with more or less reason, and in some cases even per- 
secuted. 

The pretended science of Alchymy is zealously culti- 
vated by clergy and monks. 

Severities of Penance and Excommunication carried to 
a great height, and employed as a means of spiritual des- 
potism ; but rendered nugatory as to any moral effect by 
the doctrine and practice of Indulgences. 

(1 156.) Carmelite order of monks founded by Berthold, 
on Mount Carmel. 

Quarrel between the Cistercians and the Monks of 
Clugny. 

About this time the study of the Civil Law revives, 
and makes great progress, especially at Bologna. Ten 
thousand students at that university. 

| Robert Pulley n, scholastic writer (Book of Sen- 
tences). 

Gratian (a Benedictine of Bologna) publishes a new 
collection of the Canon Law, combining the ancient 
Canons and Decretals, with the Pseudo-Isidorian, and 
those of later date; and attempting to account for dis- 
crepancies (Concordantia Discordantium Canonum) — 
Gratiani Decretum, sive Corpus Decretorum. 

After this, the Canon Law became a subject of diligent 
study. Controversy between the Legistae and Decre- 
tistae. 



Frederic I. (Barbarossa) Emperor. 
Caliphs of Bagdad restored. 






t Bernard of Clairvaux. He was distinguished by 
simple and unaffected piety (strongly tinctured with the 
prevalent superstition and asceticism), united with great 
energy of character, and persevering zeal and devotion in 
the cause of religion. His influence was extensive, and 



Period.) to the beginning of the reformation. 249 

in many respects highly beneficial. But be was also 
distinguished by a mistaken devotedness to the papal 
cause. 
1154 t Gilbert, Bishop of Poitiers. 



# Henry II. (Plantagenet) King of England. 
Frederic claims the kingdom of Italy. 



An Englishman (Nicholas Breakspeare) made pope, 
under the title of Adrian IV. 
H55 Arnold of Brescia seized, and burnt. 



Frederic crowned by the Pope. Frederic resolves to 
set himself in opposition to papal claims. 

Noiv begins the struggle (which lasted nearly a century) 
between the Ghibelines (or imperial party, of the House of 
Hohenstaufen) and the Guelphs (or papal faction). 

The struggle between the Guelphs and Ghibelines, with its 
results, carried the power of the Papacy to its height. 

The compilation of the Canon Law by Gratian assists the 
growth of papal power. 



11.56 T Peter Maurice (the Venerable), Abbot of Clugny. 



About this time the Gospel is propagated in Branden- 
burg and its neighbourhood. 

1157 Eric IX. of Sweden introduces Christianity into Fin- 
land by force of arms. Founds the first bishopric in that 
country. 

Frederic treats with contempt a haughty and patronising 
letter of the pope. He prescribes limits to pilgrimages and 
appeals to Rome, and thus seeks to weaken the dependence 
of the German Church upon the Papal See. The pope 
complains of the emperor's proceedings, in a letter to the 

1158 German bishops. (1158.) Frederic obliges the pope to 
explain, with moderation, the terms of his letter. Diet of 
Roncaglia defines the emperor's rights, to the disparage- 



250 FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII. (Fifth 

ment of those of the pope and bishops. The pope, highly 
exasperated, was on the point of excommunicating the 
emperor, when he died, 1159. 



Rise of Universities, with important immunities and privileges. 
t Gratian. 
1159 Peter Lombard, Bishop of Paris. 



Alexander III. elected pope in the hierarchical interest; 
Victor IV. on the emperor's side. 

This election of two rival popes favours the emperor's 
design of weakening the papal power. 
11 60 The emperor convenes a general council at Pavia. The 
rival popes summoned to appear before it. Alexander 
denounces the act of the emperor as an unjustifiable lay 
interference in ecclesiastical matters. The council recog- 
nises Victor as pope, and the emperor espouses his cause. 



1161 



1162 



About this time, various sects, in opposition to the domi- 
nant church, commonly designated Mystics, exist in the 
South of France, the North of Italy, Germany, Flanders, 
England, and even Spain. 

* First instance of punishment for Heresy in England. 

Some Germans, under Gerhard, who are said to have 
rejected the sacraments, and to have opposed marriage, 
were examined before a synod at Oxford, and punished 
for their offence by being branded on the forehead. 



* Henry II. of England enters into a struggle with the 
pope. The English clergy had become independent of 
the state, and Henry sought to confirm their independence 
and power within certain limits. 

Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony, conquers the Obo- 
trites, and completes the overthrow of Heathenism among 
the Wends (between the Elbe and Oder). 

* Thomas a Becket made Archbishop of Canterbury. 
He soon begins to take part with the clergy against the 
king. 



Period.) to the beginning of the reformation. 251 

| Peter Lombard (Book of Sentences). 

In his celebrated work, Lombard united the two systems 
of scholastic and ecclesiastical theology. 

Penance and Indulgence. Peter Lombard first esta- 
blished the distinction between contritio cordis, confessio 
oris, and satisfactio operis. Concerning penance and in- 
dulgence, he argued thus : — In baptism, all sin is for- 
given, and salvation bestowed for Christ's sake ; but sins 
committed after baptism expose men to the punishment 
of divine justice, and this punishment is inflicted on most 
men by the fire of purgatory ; but, according to a power 
committed to the Church, through the merits of Christ, 
this future punishment may be commuted into the in- 
fliction of temporal chastisements; and the Church has 
also power to remit even these chastisements, on con- 
sideration of certain services, or compliance with certain 
demands. But Lombard taught that such remission or 
indulgence could avail only those who, notwithstanding 
their infirmities, lived in the possession and exercise of a 
lively faith. This scheme, however, served as the basis 
of further error. It led the way to continued refinements 
(e. g. by Alexander, Albert, and Thomas) ; and was liable 
to misrepresentation and misconception. 



# Constitutions of Clarendon, 
for the protection of the rights and prerogatives of the 
crown against the claims of the clergy, and for restraining 
the independence of the latter. 

Becket at first assents to the Constitutions, but soon 
after resists them. He quarrels with the king, and seeks 
refuge in France, where he is protected by Louis. 

# The Pope takes up the cause of Becket against 
Henry. He condemns the Constitutions of Clarendon. 

* Becket excommunicates all who should observe the 
Constitutions of Clarendon, and threatens the king himself 
with a similar sentence. 



Frederic in Italy. 



252 



FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII. (Fifth 



II67 League of Italian cities for the preservation of their 
liberties. 



1168 Alexander, in connection with the States of Lombardy, 
had now established a paramount authority as pope, in 
opposition to his rival, who was supported by the 
emperor. 

1169 The island Riigen, the last refuge of Heathenism in 
Pomerania, subdued by the Danish king, Waldemar. 
Idolatrous temples destroyed, and the inhabitants bap- 
tized. 

1170 * Becket returns to England, after a reconciliation or 
compromise with the king. Murder of Becket. 



The power of the emperor in Italy is now broken. 



Controversy in the Greek Church concerning the words, 
" My Father is greater than I." 



Mission of Theorianus into Armenia, with a view to 
the re-union of the Greek and Armenian Churches — 
ineffectual. 



Rise of the Waldenses. 
Peter Waldo, a citizen of Lyons, founds a society for 
the preaching of the Gospel, in its simplicity, among the 
poor. His followers (the Poor Men of Isi/ons, Humiliati, 
Sahbatati) at first appear merely as a set of monks, not 
distinguished by any peculiar opposition to the dominant 
church. Such was the origin of the Waldenses; (which 
some, however, endeavour to trace back to Claude of 
Turin, in the ninth century). 



1171 Saladin, Sultan of Egypt to 1193. 
(He extended his dominions in Egypt, and subdued 

Syria, Assyria, Mesopotamia, and Arabia.) 

1172 * Conquest of Ireland. 



Period.) to the beginning of the reformation. 253 

#■ Extreme indignation of the pope and clergy against 
Henry II. of England, as the supposed instigator of the 
murder of Thomas a Becket. 



1173 



1174 



1177 



1178 



1179 



t Richard of St. Victor. 



Thomas a Becket canonized by Alexander. 
(Alexander claimed for the pope the sole right of 
canonizing saints.) 



Frederic in Italy, defeated at the battle of Legnano. 
The emperor is obliged to recognise Alexander as 
pope. He receives absolution. 

# Henry II. compelled to do penance at the tomb of 
Thomas a Becket. 

Bernard of Clairvaux canonized. 
The sovereignty of the Adriatic granted to the Vene- 
tians by the pope (Alexander III.). 
Peace of Venice. 



The prevalent superstition is now supported, as much 
perhaps by fraud and imposture on the one hand, as by 
ignorance on the other. 



A correspondence takes place between the pope (Alex- 
ander III.) and the Christian (Nestorian) king in Eastern 
Asia, a descendant of Johannes Presbyter. 



Waldenses. John, Archbishop of Lyons, forbids the 
preaching of the followers of Waldo. They continue their 
preaching, but without any formal separation from the 
Church. In the following year, Waldo transmits to the 
pope a copy of his translation of the Scriptures, and the 
plan of his society, with a petition for the confirmation of 
the latter. Alexander refuses his sanction. 



For the prevention of disputes at the election of popes, 
it was enacted by the Lateran Council held this year, that 



254 FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII. [Fifth 

the person chosen by two thirds of the cardinals should 
be regarded as the true pope. 
1179 The Third Lateran Council excommunicates the 
Cathari, Paterini, and Publicani, sects in the South of 
France. 



1180 Alexius II. (Comnenus) Emp. East. 

Philip II. (Auguste) King of France. 



Controversy in the Greek Church concerning the Mo- 
hammedan doctrine of the Deity. 



1181 t John of Salisbury, Bishop of Chartres. 



1182 The Monothelite Maronites conform to the Church of 
Rome. 



1183 Andronicus Comnenus, Emp. East. 



1184 Waldenses. The pope, at the Council of Verona, de- 
nounces the Waldenses as an unprivileged society, and 
excommunicates them. 



1185 Isaac Angel us, Emp. East. 



Administration of the eucharist to children forbidden 
in France. 



Laws relating to the 'payment of tithes are now universally 
and effectually enforced. 



1186 The Livonians had become acquainted with Christianity 
by means of their intercourse with Bremen and Lubeck. 
In 1186, Meinard of Holstein undertook a mission for 
the propagation of the Gospel in Livonia. His labours 
were successful; and, in 1188, he was appointed bishop of 
Uxkull. 

1 187 The Saracens, under Saladin, capture Jerusalem. Fresh 



Period.) to the beginning of the reformation. 255 

ardour in the cause of the Holy Land pervades Europe. 
Hence originates 

The Third Crusade. 



* Richard I. (Cceur de Lion) King of England. 



The Emperor Frederic advances on the Third Crusade. 

Richard I. (Coeur de Lion) of England, and Philip II. 
( Auguste) of France proceed on the Third Crusade. 
Henry VI. Emperor and King of Italy. 

At Paris, Peter Cantor recommends spiritual and 
practical religion in preference to formal devotion and 
dead ceremonies ; but his doctrine finds little acceptance. 

The Waldenses, after their excommunication, spread 
themselves in the South of France, the North of Italy, and 
Germany. They now purify their system of doctrine 
more and more from ecclesiastical errors and corruptions ; 
proclaim the Bible as its own interpreter, and the only infal- 
lible source of Christian knoicledge ; contend against the 
adoration of saints, and other superstitious observances; 
shame the great majority of the Catholic clergy by their 
superior acquaintance with Scripture; and acquire ge- 
neral respect by their good conversation, equally removed 
from fanaticism, and from a cold, selfish, worldly form of 
religion. 



■& s 



Switzerland becomes a province of the German Empire. 

The Teutonic order of knights, founded in Palestine, 
confirmed by the pope (Calixtus III.). 



Dominions of Saladin divided. 
The Emperor Henry VI. is King of Sicily, and power 
ful in Italy. 

Alexius III. (Angel us) Emp. East. 
(Isaac deposed.) 



256 FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII. (Fifth 

1197 r Peter Waldo died this year in Bohemia, whither he 
' had fled. 

(al. 1180.) f Peter Cantor. In his manual, entitled 
Verbum Abbreviation, he maintained that all doctrines 
necessary to salvation are contained in Scripture, or may 
be deduced from it. 



Opposition having been made by the Livonians to B^r- 
thold, successor of Meinhard as Bishop of Uxkull, he 
sought safety in flight. The pope institutes a Crusade 
against the Livonians, and Berthold returns with an army 
in order to enforce submission. The Crusaders conquer, 
but Berthold falls in battle. Albert of Apeldern, Bishop 
of Uxkull. (The bishopric of Uxkull was transferred 
to Riga in 1200.) 



1198 Philip of Suabia (House of Hohenstaufen, supported by 
the Ghibelines) and Otho of Saxony (supported by the 
Guelphs) dispute the imperial crown, after the death of 
Henry. 

The new pope (Innocent III.), a man of great ability 
and address, zealous for the interests of the Church. The 
death of the emperor, leaving a son only three years old, 
furnished an opportunity for the encroachments of papal 
power, and the aggrandisement of the Roman See. 

The power of the Roman Pontiffs had now nearly reached 
its height. 

They had usurped the nomination and collation to 
almost all ecclesiastical benefices; founding the assumed 
right on the false Decretals, according to which all eccle- 
siastical jurisdiction emanates from the court of Rome. 

Innocent describes himself as u the successor of St. 
Peter, set up by God to govern not only the Church but 
the whole world." "As God," said he, "has placed two great 
luminaries in the firmament, the one to rule the day and 
the other to give light by night, so has he established two 
grand powers, the pontifical and the royal; and as the 
moon receives her light from the sun, so does royalty 
borrow its splendour from the papal authority." 



Period.) to the beginning of the reformation. 257 

1 1 98 Albigenses. 

The pope sends legates armed with complete powers for 
the suppression of sects in the South of France, which the 
bishops had been unable to overthrow. They had been 
protected by Raymond, Count of Toulouse. 



Order of the Holy Trinity founded by John of Mattha 
and Felix of Valois, for the redemption of Christians 
made prisoners by Infidels. 



t Peter Comestor, Chancellor of Paris (Historia 
Scholastica). 

1 1 99 * John, King of England. 



Innocent III. undertakes to examine the claims of the 
rival candidates for the empire. He obliges the prefect of 
Rome to swear homage to the Apostolic See. 



During this century several councils were held which 
were entitled General ; but they were not recognised as 
such by the Greek Church, or even by all the churches 
of the West. They were convened in the Lateran, at the 
will of the pope, and for the advantage of the See of Rome. 



Heathen revelries and buffooneries connected with 
various Christian festivals, under the auspices of the clergy, 
notwithstanding the prohibitions of the pope. 



The misunderstanding between the Greek and Latin 
Churches had continued, notwithstanding various embas- 
sies and disputations with a view to an accommodation. 
The political aggressions of the Western powers, about 
this time, tended to confirm and widen the breach. 
1200 The pope imposes a tax on ecclesiastical revenues, for 
the purpose of raising a Crusade (Saladin Tax). 

The Armenian Church begins to make a partial sub- 
mission to the Church of Rome, with a view to protec- 

s 



258 FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII. (Fifth 

tion. The union never became complete ; no perfect 
conformity in doctrine or ceremonial established. 



Amalric of Bene, and his disciple David of Dinanto, 
leaders of a philosophico-mystic, or pantheistic, sect. 



1200 | Peter of Blois. 



1201 The order of Poor Catholics, one of the earliest mendi- 
cant orders, confirmed by Innocent. 

History now abounds with instances of prescribed 
penances, — flagellations, — daily repetition of a certain 
number of prayers, — - and alleged appearances of spirits 
detained in purgatory, exhorting the faithful to prayers, 
masses, and the like. 



The Pope decides in favour of Otho as emperor. The 
adherents of Philip protest against, his interference in the 
matter. But the pope maintains that, as it belonged to 
him to crown and consecrate the emperor, it was also his 
province to determine beforehand who may justly lay 
claim to that honour. 

Contests between Philip and Otho continue. 
\Q0 2 Order of Fratres Militice Christi, or Gladiferi, esta- 

blished in Livonia, for the maintenance and propagation 
of Christianity in that country. 

The Fourth Crusade, 
undertaken chiefly by French and Venetians ; diverted 
from its object, and ends in the siege and capture of Con- 
stantinople, in favour of 
1204 Isaac and Alexius IV. Emp. East. 

Second siege and capture of Constantinople by the 
Crusaders, after the murder of Isaac and Alexius. 
Alexius Due as Murzuphilus, Emp. East. 
Establishment of the Latin Empire in the East. 
Baldwin, Latin Emperor at Constantinople. 
(Under the Latin Empire in the East (1204—1261) the 
Church of Constantinople is subject to the See of Rome.) 



Period.) to the beginning of the reformation. 259 

The March of Ancona and the Duchy of Spoleto were 
added to the domains of the Church during the pontificate 
of Innocent III. 

About this time, history records many instances of the 
exercise of papal authority over temporal princes. Thus 
Philip (Auguste) of France was compelled to receive 
again his queen Ingeburgis, whom he had put away; 
Alfonso IX. of Leon was obliged to put away his queen 
on account of consanguinity ; Sancho I. of Portugal, to 
pay arrears of tribute; Peter of Arragon, to make his 
dominions tributary to the pope ; John of Bulgaria, to 
receive his crown at the pope's hands. 



1204 



1206 



The act of kneeling at the elevation of the Host in churches, 
and when carried through the streets to the sick, enjoined 
by Guido, papal legate, at Cologne. This law was made 
universal by Pope Honorius III. in 1217. 



Henry, Latin Emperor of Constantinople. 

Dgengis Khan begins his career of conquest in the East, 
and founds the Mogul Empire. 

This conqueror does not persecute the Christians in the 
East ; he is said to have had a Christian wife. He per- 
mits the Nestorian clergy to labour among the Moguls ; 
but this probably led to no more than the adoption of a 
few Christian ceremonies by that people. 



t Nicetas Acominatus, Byzantine historian. 
University of Paris founded. 



Early foundation of the Inquisition. ■+ 

The Waldens'es, and other sects, promote the circula- 
tion and reading of the Scriptures. Societies having 
been formed at Mentz for the reading and exposition of 
Scripture and mutual edification, the bishop of Mentz 
resolved to exterminate them. But the pope (Innocent 
III.) protected them, and encouraged the laity in their 

s 2 



260 FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII. (Fifth 

attempts to understand the Scriptures, and to edify one 
another. 

1207 Theodore Lascaris, Greek Emperor at Nicaea. Other 
independent Greek princes. 



1208 



Rise of the Franciscan order of Mendicants. 
Francis (John Bernadoni, a native of Assisi in Umbria, 
born 1182, surnamed Franciscus the Frenchman) and a 
few friends, — resolved to carry into practice the idea of 
complete self-denial and devotion to God, with renuncn 
ation of all temporal possessions, and of a life entirely 
dedicated to Christ and the preaching of the Gospel, — 
founds a society, the members of which should oblige 
themselves to live in absolute poverty, subsisting only 
upon alms, and to preach the Gospel among the people 
with apostolic simplicity of life and manners. As early 
as 1209, Innocent declared himself favourable to the in- 
stitution ; but the order was not finally established until 
1223. 



Philip murdered. Otho IV. universally acknowledged 
Emperor of Germany. 

* King John, of England, resists the pope's appoint- 
ment of Stephen Langton to the archbishopric of Canter- 
bury. The pope lays the kingdom under an interdict 
(i. e. forbids the celebration of divine offices). 



Gothofred, a Cistercian Abbot, preaches Christianity in 
Prussia with some success. 



ATbigenses. The death of a papal legate in the South 
of France by an unknown hand occasions the adoption of 
severe measures against the sectaries in the South of 
France. Arnold, Abbot of Citeaux, preaches a crusade 
against them. Under the general name of Albigenses, 
they are murderously persecuted during the next twenty 
years. 



Period,) to the beginning of the reformation. 261 

1209| Several followers of Amalric put to death by the 
Council of Paris ; the sect gradually dispersed. 



1210 



1212 



1213 



The Emperor Otho crowned by the Pope. 
# The Pope excommunicates John, King of England. 



The Council of Paris orders all the works of Aristotle 
to be burnt. 



Otho maintains certain imperial rights against the pope. 
He is placed under a bann. 



Waldenses. The pope endeavours to bring the Poor 
Men of Lyons ( Waldenses) within the limits and under con- 
troul of the Church, as a society of Poor Catholics. But 
his efforts are now too late. The Waldenses had pene- 
trated too deeply into the truths of the Gospel, and had 
imbibed too much of their spirit, to endure any admix- 
ture of Catholic errors with their creed ; and they were 
become, by God's grace, too wise to fall into the snare 
prepared for them. They preserved their distinct charac- 
ters as independent witnesses of the truth ; and henceforth 
became subject to violent persecutions, which they meekly 
endured for conscience sake. 



Beghards or Beguines in Flanders and Germany. Tur- 
lupins in France. 

The Abbot Joachim uttered predictions against the 
Papal See, and was a declared enemy to the scholastic 
theology. He had many followers, who were called 
Joachites. 

The pope favours Frederick of Sicily in his attempts 
to secure the imperial crown. 

# He deposes John, King of England ; and promises 
his crown to the King of France, 

# John submits to the Pope, surrenders his kingdom 
to him, and receives it back as a fief of the See of Rome. 

s 3 



262 FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII. {Fifth 

1214 Otho defeated at the battle of Bovines ; obliged to re- 
tire from the contest. 

1215 Frederick II. crowned Emperor at Aix-la-Chapelle. 
* English Magna Charta signed. 



Christian, one of Gothofred's companions, Bishop of 
Prussia. 

The Gospel had made some progress in Prussia ; but 
this was checked in consequence of attempts on the part 
of the dukes of Poland and Pomerania to make use of 
Christian missions for the purposes of oppressing the 
Prussians. The Christian teachers were driven out of 
the country, and war ensued. Hence the orders of knights 
were afterwards excited to propagate Christianity in Prussia 
with the sword. 



The Fourth Lateran Council; assembled chiefly with 
the view of promoting a new Crusade, and for the reform- 
ation of the Church. Further multiplication of monastic 
orders forbidden. Payment of tithes declared to be a 
duty of common right. 

Throughout this century, the Holy See remains at the 
height of power to which it had attained during the pontifi- 
cate of Innocent. The resistance of the House of Hohenstavfen 
tends rather to increase, than to diminish, its influence. 
Provisional mandates. Gratias exspectativae. 

The election of Bishops is now generally vested in 
chapters. 

The doctrine of Transubstantiation declared to he an article 
of faith by the Fourth Lateran Council. 

But many divines (of Paris) during this century con- 
tended for the possibility of the real presence of the body 
of Christ in the sacrament, without any change in the 
substance of the bread. They held that there may be an 
union of two substances in consecrated bread (the later 
Lutheran doctrine of Consubstantiation). 

The pope endeavours to counteract some of the abuses 
now connected with Penance and Absolution. As a remedy, 
it was enacted by the Fourth Lateran Council that all 



Period.) to the beginning of the reformation. l 263 

laymen should confess their sins, general and particular, 
to a priest, at least once a year. Establishment of com- 
pulsory auricular confession,, 
1215 The Fourth Lateran Council obliges all persons to com- 
municate in the Lord's supper, at least once a year, under 
pain of excommunication. 

The foundation of new monastic orders was prohibited 
by a decree of the Lateran Council. 

But in the same year, Innocent gave his assent to the 
plan of Dominic, a Spanish presbyter and canon, for the 
formation of an order for the purposes of preaching and 
the religious instruction of the people, on condition that 
it should conform to the rule already extant under the 
name of Augustin, with certain modifications. And in 
1216 this order of preachers was formally established 
(Fratres Praedicatores). Such was the 

Origin of the Dominican Order. 

The conduct and professions of certain sectaires, who 
inveighed against ecclesiastical corruption and luxury, and 
were regarded as the enemies of the Church, is said to 
have occasioned and suggested the foundation of mendi- 
cant orders under the sanction of the Church, for the pur- 
pose of rendering it more efficient, or at least of uphold- 
ing its credit with the people. 



| Theodore Balsamon. 



Cities now begin to erect themselves into political 
bodies, and to form, by degrees, a third order, distinct 
from that of the clergy and nobility. Rise of Communes, 
or Free Corporations. 
1216 # Henry III. King of England. 



1217 The Fifth Crusade, 
under Andrew II. King of Hungary. Unimportant. 
No permanent results. 

1218 Death, of Otho. Frederic renews the war in Italy. 
During the pontificate of Honorius, the emperor is on 

s 4 



264 FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII. {Fifth 

good terms with the pope : chiefly by promising to pre- 
pare a new Crusade. 



1219 
1220 



The Franciscan order now includes five thousand 
monks. 

The Emperor Frederic II. cedes to Honorius III. the 
patrimony of the Countess Matilda, afterwards designated 
as the Patrimony of St. Peter. 



State and Prospects of Religion. 

On the one hand, symptoms of the revival of religion 
appear — in the lives and influence of individuals distin- 
guished by fervent and devoted piety, such as Bernard 
of Clairvaux and Francis ; in the interest connected with 
religious subjects, which had been awakened by the Cru- 
sades ; and in the rapid and wide spread of sects distin- 
guished by their profession of simple and practical piety. 
But, on the other hand, there was — much ignorance and 
superstition even in the minds of those who were most 
distinguished by sanctity and zeal; and the multitude 
lived in the indulgence of unbridled licentiousness and 
sensuality. The ignorance and evil lives of the great 
body of the clergy formed also a barrier to improve- 
ment. 

Superstition was at its height. Adoration of relics, 
belief in fabulous miracles and legends of the saints, pilgrim- 
ages to places accounted sacred, and the like, were universal, 
notwithstanding the (partial) remonstrances of such men 
as Bernard, Hildebert (Archbishop of Tours, 1134), 
Guibert of Nogent, Eckbert (Bishop of Munster), Abelard, 
and others. Idolatrous worship of the Virgin Mary ex- 
ceeded all bounds : to this Bernard, Bonaventura, and 
other eminent men consented, although they refused to 
admit the doctrine of the immaculate conception of the 
Virgin. The superstitious abuse of the sacraments was 
also carried to excess. 



Dominic obliges the members of his order to take a 



Period.) to the beginning of the reformation. 265 

vow of poverty. Thus the Dominican order becomes Men- 
dicant As such, it spreads rapidly throughout Europe. 
Dominic died in 1221. 



1221 Extensive conquests of Dgengis Khan. 

Robert, Latin Emperor at Constantinople. 
During this century the number of serfs in Germany 
diminishes. 

Friars Tertiary. Francis establishes his Tertius Ordo 
de Pcenitentia, for persons wishing to live in the bonds 
of a religious society without being subject to monastic 
rules. 

* First establishment of Mendicants in Oxford. 



1222 John II. (Vatazes) Greek Emperor, 

successful against the Latins. 



1223 



j* Peter of Corbeil. 
(al. 1260.) University of Padua founded. 



Louis VIII. King of France. 



Franciscan order of Mendicants formally established, 
under the title of Fratres Minores. This order soon 
became very large and important. 



1225 



1226 



The Church of Rome is strengthened by the Mendicant 
Orders lately established, and now rapidly rising into 
repute. 

The emperor promises to furnish a new Crusade within 
two years, under penalty of excommunication. 



"f Francis. 
Violent disputes arise among the Franciscans, 
respecting the observance of their rule ; one party con- 
tending for a strict, another for a more lax, interpretation 
and compliance. 



266 FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII. {Fifth 

1226 (St.) Louis IX. King of France. 



12^7 Crusade still deferred. The new pope excommunicates 
the emperor. 

The Sixth Crusade, 
under the Emperor Frederic II. Peace for ten years 
concluded with the sultan. Frederic obtains restoration 
of Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Nazareth, and Sidon. 

These successes lead to a professed reconciliation of the 
emperor and the pope. 



I* Stephen Langton, Archbishop of Canterbury. Said 
to have been the first who divided the Bible into chapters. 
Universities of Salamanca and Toulouse founded. 



~LQ%g The Teaching of the Church. 

The reading of the Scriptures (which had been sanc- 
tioned by Innocent III.), having led to the discovery of 
many errors in the doctrine of the dominant church, the 
Council of Toulouse, assembled in 12*29, decreed that lay- 
men should not possess copies of the Scriptures, and that 
they should read the Psalter and Breviary, during divine 
offices only, in Latin. 

Rise of the Inquisition. 

The Council of Toulouse adopts and enforces a decree 
of the Fourth Lateran Council, providing that all bishops 
should appoint sworn men in different parts of their dio- 
ceses, to discover heretics in all their lurking-places, and 
deliver them over to punishment; and that every man 
and woman should once in every two years take an oath 
of fidelity to the Roman See, and bind themselves to 
assist in the detection of heretics. 

The council enacts that in every diocese one priest and 
several laymen should be appointed to search for heretics. 
Every house in which a heretic is found to be pulled 
down, and the ground confiscated. 

By the same council, all householders are compelled to 
attend mass every Sunday and festival, 



Period.) to the beginning of the reformation. 267 

1229 Baldwin II. Latin Emperor at Constantinople. 



1230 The Livonian knights (Gladiferi) plant Christianity in 
Courland. 



Nuns of St. Dominic. 



The Western Empire gradually decays. 
Frederic II. is obliged to grant charters to several 
princes recognising their territorial rights. 

A series of quarrels between the pope and the emperor. 



The Greek emperors are anxious to bring about a re- 
conciliation between the Eastern and Western Churches. 
But the great majority of the Greek clergy offer violent 
opposition to the attempt. Only some few (Latinising) 
members of their body favour it. 



The knights of the Teutonic order undertake to esta- 
blish Christianity in Prussia by force of arms, at the in- 
stance of the Polish Duke, Conrad. 



1231 The pope commands that no layman shall dispute, 
either publicly or in his house, concerning the Catholic 
Faith, under penalty of excommunication. 



The Mendicants now possess great influence in the 
universities. A party in the University of Paris, headed 
by William de St. Amour, resists the claims of the Domi- 
nicans to a theological chair. 

Order of Sylvestrians founded in Italy, under the rule of 
Benedict. 

This year Gregory publishes a bull in favour of the 
more lax Franciscans, authorising an abatement of the 
rigour of their rule. 



?v 



1232 The Inquisition. Gregory, finding the bishops not suffi- 
ciently energetic and efficient in the suppression of heresy, 
establishes, first at Toulouse and Carcassone, and after- 



268 FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII. (Fifth 

wards in other districts, tribunals under the immediate 
authority of the pope, commissioned to receive charges of 
heresy, to seize persons suspected, to keep them in con- 
finement as long as may be deemed necessary, to endeavour 
to extort confession by torture, to inflict penances (e. g. of 
imprisonment for life) upon those who should recant, and 
to deliver over the incorrigible to the secular arm for 
capital punishment. 

Inquisitores PLeretic^: Pravitatis (Dominicans). 

Conrad of Marpurg, a Dominican, first inquisitor in 
Germany, having executed his commission with cruel 
severity, was slain by some German nobles in 1233. 



1233 Order ofServites founded. 

Convent of Port Royal des Champs, between Paris and 
Versailles, founded. 



1234 Gregory causes Raymond de Penna forti to compile a 
systematic collection of Canon Law, which is published by 
authority, as a means of repressing frequent fabrications 
and forgeries in this department ( Deere talium Gregorii 
P. IX. lib. v.). 

1235 Robert Grostete (Capito) Bishop of Lincoln. 



The Stedingians inveigh against the clergy. 



1236 The emperor and the Lombard States at war. 



1237 The Livonian knights (Gladiferi) unite with those of 
the Teutonic order for the introduction of Christianity 
into Prussia. 



1238 The Kingdom of Granada founded. 



The Carmelite order of monks (founded in 1156) ex- 
tends into the West. 
Raymond de Penna forti, General of the Dominicans. 



Period.) to the beginning of the reformation. 269 

The pope still aggrieved by the efforts of the emperor 
to establish his power in Italy. He takes part with the 

1239 Lombard cities against the emperor. At length (1239), 
the pope excommunicates Frederic " on account of his 
manifold oppressions of the Church," threatening further 
proceedings against him as " one suspected of heresy." 
Frederic appeals from the pope to a general council. 
The pope openly accuses the emperor as an unbeliever. 

Sancho II. King of Portugal, involved in disputes with 
the bishops and the pope. (Deposed by the pope in 
1245.) 

1241 The emperor forcibly prevents the assembling of a 
general council at Rome, convened by Gregory. 



The Moguls penetrate as far as Silesia and Hungary. 



1248 The pope divides Prussia into four bishoprics. 



Continual troubles and anarchy in Germany. 



1244 Fruitless attempt at establishing a good understanding 
between the emperor and the pope. Mutual jealousy and 
distrust. The pope refuses absolution to the emperor, 
flees to Lyons, pronounces a fresh sentence of excommu- 
nication, and cites the emperor before a general council 
at Lyons, 1245. The emperor refuses to appear before 
such a judge. Council pronounces sentence of excommuni- 
cation and deposition. 

1245 The pope sends missionaries to the Moguls; but with 
little effect. 

The Khan demands submission. (Kajuk, Great Khan 
of the Moguls, is now formidable in Europe.) 

The emperor writes against the pope, and calls upon 
princes to throw off his unapostolic yoke. The pope con- 
tinues to demand absolute submission. The contest lasts 
during the life of Frederic. 



The Carmelites a mendicant order. 



2 ?° FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII. (Fifth 

The pope authorises the Franciscans (Friars Minor) to 
possess houses, furniture, books, &c. The more lax party 
adopt this permission, regarding these things as their own 
for use, but the pope's as to property. The advocates for 
the strict observance of the rule and the vow of poverty 
contend against these proceedings. Under the name of 
" zealous," or " spiritual," they kept up a violent contest on 
this subject throughout the century. 



1245 



1248 
1249 



Bonaventura studies at Paris. 
T Alexander of Hales, Irrefragable Doctor (Sum of 
Theology). 

University founded at Rome. 
Thomas Aquinas studies at Paris, and afterwards at 
Cologne, under Albert the Great. 



The Berghards, &c. amalgamate with the Tertiary order 
of Franciscans. 



The Seventh Crusade 
(under St. Louis of France). 
Another mission to the Moguls, sent by Louis IX. of 
France. 

Capture of Damietta by the Crusaders. St. Louis taken 
prisoner, and Damietta lost again. (After the release of 
the king in 1250, four years spent before Acre to no 
purpose.) 

# University College, Oxford, founded. 



-#■ Edmund, late Archbishop of Canterbury, canonized. 

About this time, a forgery, entitled " The Eternal 
Gospel," composed probably about the beginning of the 
century, was republished, with an Introduction : filled 
with prophecies in favour of St. Francis and his friars. 
1250 * Some blood, said to have been part of that shed by 
our Saviour on the cross, conveyed, with great pomp, to 
Westminster Abbey. 

Conrad IV. Emperor of Germany. 



Period.) to the beginning of the reformation. 27] 

Origin of the Hanseatic League. 



1250 



1251 



1253 



1254 



1255 
1256 



College of the Sorbonne at Paris founded, by Robert, 
Chaplain to Louis IX. (Collegium, or Congregatio, pau- 
perum magistrorum studentium in theologica facultate.) 



Mangu, Great Khan of the Moguls. 

Ruysbrock conducts a mission to Mangu. The Khan 
adopted the Christian name in 1253 ; but the religion of 
the Gospel did not make any real progress among his 
people. 

Grostete resists the papal appointment of a youth as 
canon in his cathedral. In a letter, he protests against 
the undue authority and interference of the pope. 



t Grostete. 
Thomas Aquinas teaches at Paris. 
Bonaventura promotes the worship of the Virgin Mary. 
Nicephorus Blemmidas, fl. 



Great Interregnum of the Western Empire. 
The Knights of St. Lazarus of Jerusalem come into 
France. 

Egypt under the Mamelukes (1250—1282). 
Theodore Lascaris II. Greek Emperor. 
Enfranchisement of Serfs in Italy. 



The struggle between the Popes and the House of 
Hohenstaufen continues during the pontificates of the 
three successors of Innocent, — Alexander, Urban, and 
Clement. 



William de St. Amour, defending the University of 
Paris against the Dominicans, publishes his book, 
" Concerning the Perils of the Last Times ;" in which 
he inveighs not only against the Mendicants, but against 
many superstitions and corruptions of the Church, not 
sparing the pope himself. The pope afterwards decided 



272 FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII. (Fifth 

in favour of the Friars, and William was obliged to seek 
safety in flight. 

1256 The Hermits of Jugustin, a mendicant order (the 
union of several societies of hermits in Italy, under a 
rule said to have been derived from Augustin). 
Bonaventura, General of his order (Franciscans). 



f Vincent of Beauvais (Speculum Majus). 

1257 Arsenius Autorianus, Patriarch of Constantinople 
(Nomocanon). 

* University of Cambridge founded. 

1258 After the capture of Bagdad, the Moguls showed 
favour to theNestorian Christians. Subsequently, Christi- 
anity and Mohammedanism appeared to prevail by turns ; 
until, at the beginning of the fourteenth century, Mo- 
hammedanism obtained the upper hand decidedly, and 
thenceforward the Christians were violently persecuted. 



Manfred, King of Sicily. 

1259 Theodore Lascaris IV. Greek Emperor. 

1 260 End of the Caliphate of Bagdad, 



Thomas Aquinas repairs to Italy. 
f William of St. Amour, 
(al. 1222.) University of Padua founded. 
The Teaching of the Church. 
The clergy of this period, for the most part ignorant 
themselves, were incompetent to teach. They offered to 
the people little more than dead forms and a dead lan- 
guage. But some individuals laboured for their improve- 
ment. Guibert, an abbot of Nogent (| 1124), published 
a treatise on preaching (Liber quo Ordine Sermo fieri 
debeat). Humbert of Romans, General of the Domini- 
cans ("j* 1277), wrote a work in two books (De Eruditione 
Praedicatorum). Bonaventura (f 1274) compiled an in- 
struction for preaching, entitled Biblia Pauper um. 
Thomas Aquinas (| 1274) promoted a simple and scrip- 
tural style of preaching by his own example. Thomas 



Period.) to the beginning of the reformation. 273 

Aquinas and Berthold of Ratisbon preached in the 
vernacular tongue. 

Translations of Scripture were made during the 
twelfth century, especially in the South of France. But 
the reading of Scripture was generally discountenanced ; 
and hence Christian knowledge was at a low ebb. 



Communion in one kind. 

Thomas Aquinas, Bonaventura, and other Schoolmen, 
defend the withdrawal of the cup from the laity in the 
Lord's supper. In the course of this century their argu- 
ments prevailed, and the practice of administering the 
communion in one kind became general, founded on 
a superstitious regard for the mere elements used in the 
Lord's supper, and on a false opinion of the superior 
sanctity of the clerical order. 

N.B. Popes Leo the Great and Gelasius had de- 
nounced the act of receiving the sacrament under only 
one kind as sacrilegious. 



The sect of Apostolicals in Italy, with Gerard Segarelli 
at their head; denouncing, in the rising spirit of the 
times, the luxury and indolence of the clergy. 



Contest between the Dominicans and the University of 
Paris decided by the pope in favour of the former, 



Michael Paljeologus, Greek Emperor, 
retakes Constantinople. 
End of the Latin Empire in the East. 
The Genoese, in league with the Greek emperors, at 
war with Venice. 



j Hugh of St. Cher (Concordance of the Bible). 

(al. 1272.) Thomas of Cantinpre (Bonum Universale, 
seu De Apibus). 

During this period, the attention bestowed upon Holy 
Scripture consisted in — the revision of Latin manu- 
scripts, and the compilation of Concordances (Anton of 

T 



274 FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII. {Fifth 

Padua, and Hugh of St. Cher), and Expositions (chiefly 
mystical, exhibiting great want of critical or philological 
science). 



1264 



1265 



1268 



Festum Corporis Domini, 
established by Urban, for the whole church (in favour of 
the doctrine of Transubstantiation, and the adoration of 
the Host). But the observance of this festival did not 
become general, until the order was repeated by Cle- 
ment V. in 1311, with effect. 

Adoration of the consecrated bread of the eucharist be- 
comes more and more general ; the withdrawal of the cup 
from the laity takes its rise. 

The doctrine of human merit, and of supererogatory 
works, ivas now carried to an extreme height. It produced 
most pernicious effects upon the whole body of received 
theology, 

* The Commons admitted into the English Parliament 
for the first time. 

Charles 1, of Anjou conquers the Sicilies. 

to 1268. Caesarea, Jaffa, and Antioch, taken from the 
Christians by the Mameluke Sultans of Egypt. 



Reservation of benefices becoming vacant by the in- 
cumbents dying at Rome, introduced this year by 
Clement IV. 

" This first reservation was the forerunner of several 
others, such as the reservation of all cathedral churches, 
abbeys, and priories ; as also of the highest dignities in 
cathedral and collegiate churches; and of all collective 
benefices, becoming vacant during eight months in the 
year, called the pope's months, so that only four months 
remained for the ordinary collators ; and these, too, en- 
croached upon by mandates, expectatives, and reserva- 
tions." (Koch.) 

Conradin, the last member of the House of Hohen- 
staufen, made prisoner and beheaded. 



Period.) to the beginning of the reformation. 275 



1268 



1270 



1273 



1^74 



The contest between the Pope and the House of Hohen- 
staufen terminates in favour of the Pope. 

The Papal Dominion at its utmost height. 

About this time, the petty princes of Europe continu- 
ally make concessions and donations to the Roman See. 

to 1271. Dissensions among the cardinals concerning 
the election of a pope. 



Eighth (and last) Crusade 
under Louis of France, and Prince (afterwards King) 
Edward of England. Edward rescues Acre, and obtains 
a ten years' truce before his return. 

Philip III. (the Bold) King of France. 
Rodolph of Hapsburg, Emperor of Germany, 

(first of the Austrian line). 
Rodolph renews the oath of Otho IV. and Frederic II. 
to the Pope. 

* Edward I. King of England. 



The Greek Emperor, Michael Palseologus, endeavours 
to put an end to the controversy between the Eastern 
and Western Churches. But in this attempt he is op- 
posed by Joseph, Patriarch of Constantinople, who is not 
disposed to make any concessions concerning the points 
in debate. Joseph abdicates ; and John Beccus or Veccus, 
who had formerly opposed the union, but had suddenly 
changed his views on the subject, is made patriarch in his 
room. ___^ 

At the General Council of Lyons, fresh laws are passed 
concerning the election of popes. Conclave of cardinals 
established, or the rule relating to the strict confinement 
of the members of the college during their deliberations, 
until the election. 

At this council, the ambassadors of the Greek emperor 
recognise the primacy of the pope, and subscribe a con- 
fession of faith, on condition that the Greek Church 
should retain its old Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed, 
and certain peculiar rites. But this union of the two 

T 2 



276 FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII. (Fifth 



1274 



churches — the work of the Byzantine court — was only 
temporary. 

Orders of Mendicants. — By the Council of Lyons, the 
number of mendicant orders is restricted to four, namely, 
Dominicans, Franciscans, Carmelites, and Hermits of 
Augustin. The number of orders had amounted to no 
less than twenty-three. 



The ardour of Europe in the cause ofilie Crusades subsides. 
The pope fails in an attempt to procure such an expedition. 



f Thomas Aquinas (Angelic Doctor), and Bonaventura 
(Seraphic Doctor). 

The latter had contributed greatly to the union of the 
scholastic and mystic theology. 



1275 Missionaries sent to China, under the auspices of the 
Khan, by whom they are favourably received. (Marco 
Polo accompanies the missionaries.) The Khan died in 
1293, without making profession of Christianity. 



Penance and Indulgence. 
Alexander of Hales, Albert, and Thomas Aquinas, 
added to the errors already preached by Peter Lombard. 
They established the doctrine of a Thesaurus supereroo-a- 
tionis perfectorum, a treasure of the supererogatory merits 
of Christ and the saints, the property of the Church, from 
which she could appropriate to any of her members so 
much as might serve as a substitute or satisfaction for 
punishment deserved. According to these Schoolmen, 
this indulgence was not equivalent to the forgiveness of 
sin, but related only to penalties which it was in the power 
of the Church to inflict, or to the sufferings of purgatory ; 
and further, such indulgence was said to benefit none but 
those who exercised hearty repentance, and were united 
to Christ and the Church by a true faith. But this dis- 
tinction and these necessary conditions were usually kept 
out of sight by those who were concerned in the sale of 



Period.) to the beginning of the reformation. 277 

Indulgences; and the people ignorantly supposed that 
they could purchase the remission of all their sins by the 
performance of certain services, or the payment of money. 



1276 



1278 
1279 



1280 



Kingdom of Arragon. 



The cardinals obtain a suspension of the rule of con- 
clave. 

Durandi Rationale Divin. Officiorum. 



The emperor renounces all his rights in the Exarchate. 



* In England the statute of mortmain makes the king's 
consent necessary for transfer of property to the Church. 



Bull of Nicholas III. (Exiit qui seminat), intended as a 
means of reconciling the conflicting parties of Friars 
Minor. It allowed " the use " of certain things ; and so 
did not satisfy the Zealous or Spiritual party, who not only 
rejected the papal interpretation of their rule, but set 
themselves in more decided opposition to the interests of 
the See of Rome. 



Segarelli, Leader of the Apostolicals, taken into custody 
by the bishop of Parma. 



I Albert the Great, a celebrated school 

3 282 



man. 



Massacre of the French in Sicily (Sicilian Vespers). 

Peter III. King of Arragon and Sicily. 

Christians persecuted in Persia, by the Mohammedans. 



T Georgius Acropolita Logothetes, continuator of By- 
zantine history. 

The more strict Franciscans (Spiritual) may now be re- 
garded as 
an influential party in opposition to the dominant church. 

t 3 



278 FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII. (Fifth 

The Greek Emperor Andronicus I. annuls the union 
with the Latin Church, and restores ecclesiastical matters 
to their former condition. Veccus is deposed and perse- 
cuted, and Joseph is again made Patriarch of Constanti- 
nople. The Latinising clergy are unpopular; and thus 
the quarrel between the churches of the East and West is re- 
vived. 



1283 Andronicus IL Emperor of Constantinople. 
1285 Philip IV. (the Fair) King of France. 



j" Raymond Martin. 



1286 t Gregory Abulpharagius, Bishop of Aleppo, and Pri- 
mate of the Jacobites (Universal History). 



Segarelli released. But the sect of Apostolicals, not 
being a privileged order, prohibited by the pope (Hono- 
rius IV.) 

Frequent misunderstandings and quarrels between the pope 
and European princes. 

State of Theology. 

As the source or foundation of Christian doctrine, some 
theologians of this age adhered to the Scriptures and the 
Fathers (tradition) ; while others (the Schoolmen) super- 
added the Aristotelian philosophy as a distinct source of 
knowledge. 

The Schoolmen employed themselves chiefly in com- 
menting upon the Sentences of Peter Lombard. 

Undue deference to human authority acting as a check 
upon liberty of thought in matters of religious belief, it 
followed that the more vigorous minds of this age em- 
ployed their energies in inventing distinctions, framing 
and answering captious questions, or other such exercises 
of reasoning or ingenuity. Hence many unprofitable 
questions and speculations were introduced into the pre- 
valent theology, in addition to the various errors with 
which it was already overcharged. 



Period,) TO THE BEGINNING OF THE REFORMATION. 279 

1289; John de Monte Corvino, a Franciscan, sent by the 
pope as a missionary to the Chinese Mogul Empire. He 
laboured in Pekin wjth industry and apparent success, 
during eleven years, alone. About 6000 Moguls bap- 
tized. New Testament and Psalms translated into their 



language. 



1290 



The society of Apostolicals condemned as heretical. 
i Members of the society persecuted. SegarelH inveighs 
I against the dominant church as Spiritual Babylon. 



1291 



University of Lisbon founded. 



The Genoese triumph over the Republic of Pisa. 

End of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. 
Capture of Acre by the Mamelukes. The Knights 
Templars and Hospitalers escape to Cyprus. Christian 
dominion in Palestine at an end. 

Adolphus of Nassau, Emperor of Germany. 
1292 Masoud, last Sultan of Iconium, conquered by the 
I Moguls. 



1294 



* Edward I. of England demands one half of the 
revenues of the Church within his dominions. The clergy 
make some resistance, but are compelled to submit. 



Beghards and Beguines condemned and persecuted,. 



The cardinals, compelled to proceed to an election, 
hastily nominate a recluse, under the title of Celestin V. 
The Cardinal Benedict Cajetan, having persuaded him to 
declare the abdication of a pope valid, and then to abdi- 
cate, procures his own election under the title of Boni- 
face VI i I. 



Friars Minor. Celestin permits the Spiritual party to 
form themselves into a separate society (order of Celes- 
tines). But this act was annulled by Boniface; and the 
Spiritual henceforward suffer great persecution. 



t4 



280 FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII. {Fifth 

1294 t Alan of Lille (Universal Doctor). 

* f Roger Bacon. As a biblical divine, he contended 
for the authority of Scripture as the fountain of truth, 
in opposition to all other authorities. Hugh of St. Cher 
(f 1*260) may be placed in the same class. 



l l 296 The pope (Boniface) quarrels with Philip the Fair, of 
France. Philip having taxed the clergy of his kingdom 
to defray his military expenses, Boniface issued a bull of 
excommunication against all laymen who should demand 
tribute from the clergy, and all spiritual persons who 
should pay tribute to laymen. Negotiations were begun, 
but broken off. Afterwards the pope wrote to the em- 
peror in the following terms : — " Scire te volumus, quod 

in spiritualibus et temporalibus nobis subes Aliud 

credentes haereticos reputamus.' , To which the emperor 
replied, — " Sciat maxima tua fatuitas, in temporalibus 

nos alicui non subesse Secus credentes fatuos et 

dementes reputamus." 

* Winchelsey, Archbishop of Canterbury, obtains a 
bull, forbidding the levying and payment of taxes, in the 
case of ecclesiastics, without permission from Rome. 

1297 Canonization of Louis JX. 



1298 Albert of Austria, Emperor of Germany. 



(al. 1284.) John Beccus (Veccus). 
University of Montpellier founded. 



1299 The Ottoman Empire founded by Othmjn. 



During this century, some of the errors of the domi- 
nant church were sanctioned by the decrees of councils, 
e.g. Transubstantiation ; others were systematized by the 
diligence of Schoolmen, e. g. the doctrine of Indulgence. 

But testimonies to a purer system of Christian doctrine 
were given in the course of the century by the School- 
men in various parts of their writings, as well as (more 
decidedly) by those witnesses of truth who were con- 



Period.) to the beginning of the reformation. 281 

demned by the dominant party as heretics) e. g. Wal- 
denses. 

Large numbers of persons ivere punished as heretics during 
this century ; but the majority of these appear to have taught 
a purer faith than that which prevailed within the borders of 
the dominant church. 



1300 



The worship of the Virgin Mary was carried to a great 
height during this century; a festival was appointed in 
honour of her birth; and the use of St. Mary's Psalter 
became general. 

The house of the Virgin, said to have been miraculously 
transported from Nazareth to Dalmatia, and then to 
Loretto, during this period. (Miracle not related until 
the end of the fifteenth century.) 



Controversy between Thomists and Scotists. 
The followers of Thomas Aquinas (Thomists) and 
those of Duns Scotus (Scotists) differed with each other on 
the following matters : — In philosophy, the Thomists took 
the Aristotelian view of universals, while the Scotists de- 
fended the system of Plato. In theology, the Thomists 
adopted the opinions of Augustin concerning sin and 
grace: but the Scotists were Semipelagians, inclining 
strongly to Pelagianism. The Thomists attributed an 
infinite value to the merits of Christ in virtue of his 
nature as God-man ; the Scotists supposed them to have 
possessed their value and efficacy in consequence of the 
divine appointment or decree. The Thomists denied, 
the Scotists assumed, the doctrine of the immaculate con- 
ception of the Virgin Mary. 



The First Jubilee, 
or solemn centennial visit to the Church of St. Peter at 
Rome for obtaining a plenary indulgence, proclaimed by 
Boniface VIII. 



Lollards. About this time a society was formed in 
Antwerp, chiefly for visiting and relieving the sick. The 



282 FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII. (Fifth 

members of this society were called Lollards (from lollen, 
to sing). 

1300 Segarelli, Leader of the Apostolicals, burnt at Parma. — 
Doicino (Dulcinus) succeeds him as head of the party: 
he prophesies the overthrow of the Church in 1363, and 
returns to Dalmatia. 



Universities of Lyons and Lerida founded. 

1302 Philip having refused to obey a summons from the 
pope, Boniface issues a bull (Unam Sanctam) declaring 
the doctrine of the sovereign and unlimited power of the 
pope to be a necessary article of faith, and condemning, 
as a Manichaean heresy, the recognition of two independent 
powers, the spiritual and the temporal (as of two prin- 
ciples, good and bad). 

1303 Boniface excommunicates Philip. The king and his 
people appeal to a general council, and institute charges 
against the character and orthodoxy of the pope. Boni- 
face flies to Anagni ; is made prisoner by William de 
Nogaret; afterwards released by the people. He died at 
Rome the same year, 



First assembly of the States-general in France, com- 
posed of the three orders of the kingdom. 



University of Avignon founded. 
1304 $ Richard Middleton (Solid and Copious Doctor), 



Doicino returns to Italy. At the head of many thou- 
sand followers, he takes possession of a mountain, from 
which he makes predatory incursions upon the neighbour- 
hood. In 1306 he removed to another position, where 
his party for some time resisted the efforts of a crusade 
which had been sent against it; but was at length (1307) 
compelled to yield. Doicino put to death, 

Benedict, the next pope, seeks to make peace with 
France; but his plans are frustrated by death. Two 
parties (Italian and French) among the cardinals. They 
agree upon a mode of election, after the lapse of nine 



Period.) to the beginning of the reformation. 283 

months. Clement V. elected (1305) ; in the interests of 
France. 



1307 



1308 



The Knights Templar, who had acquired great wealth 
and many privileges, had become obnoxious to Philip of 
France, and their possessions were an object of his cupi- 
dity. Many charges of impiety, blasphemy, and crime, 
were alleged against them ; apparently not without some 
foundation. 



* Edward II. King of England. 
* In England, the civil power continues to gain ground 
against ecclesiastical influence and usurpation. 



The pope appoints seven missionaries (consecrated 
bishops) as assistants to John de Monte Corvino, who is 
appointed Archbishop of Cambalu (Pekin), and continues 
to labour for the conversion of the Moguls until his 
death. 

Knights Templar in France seized and imprisoned by 
order of Philip, who sought the destruction of their order. 
General examination, and trials, with the forced con- 
currence of the pope. 



University of Perugia founded. 
Pachymeres, Byzantine historian, fl. 
* J Duns Scotus. 
University of Coimbra founded. 
Elements of decay in the scholastic theology become ap- 
parent; Schoolmen, content to adopt, without examination, 
the system of either Scotists or Thomists, Nominalists or 
Realists, employ their dialectic skill in fruitless and ridi- 
culous subtleties. They support the existing Church 
system, without respect for modern improvements, and 
the more enlightened spirit of the times. 



Henry VII. of Luxemburg, Emperor of Germany. 
Swiss Cantons throw off the Austrian yoke. 



284 FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORV VII. (Fifth 

1308 Clement removes the Seat of the Papacy to 

Avignon. 

This removal tends greatly to weaken the power of the 
popes ; first, by the loss of the historical reminiscences 
connected with Rome, upon which certain pretensions had 
been founded; secondly, as involving dependence upon 
France ; and thirdly, as favouring an increase of profligacy 
in the papal court. 

1309 The Diet of Spires, held this year, was the first in which 
the cities of the empire appeared as a third order. 

The Knights of St. John (Hospitalers) settle in Rhodes. 



Philip had stipulated that Clement should procure the 
condemnation of the late pope. Articles of accusation 
against him were now exhibited before Clement ; but, in 
deference to public opinion, the matter was deferred until 
the next general council. 

Precursors of the Reformation. 
During this century the Gospel was preached in a con- 
siderable degree of purity by the Waldenses scattered in 
Bohemia. 

1310 Philip causes to be burnt at Paris, in one day, fifty-four 
Templars, who were about to defend their order before the 
papal commissioners. 

1311 The pope formally suppresses the order of Knights 
Templar, in the Council of Vienne. 

The council refuses to condemn Boniface, the late pope. 
It makes some ineffectual provisions for the reformation of 
the Church. 



Observance of the Festival of Corpus Domini strictly 
enjoined by the Council of Vienne. 



University of Orleans founded. 



Period.) TO the beginning of the reformation. 285 

Brethren and Sisters of the Free Spirit in Italy ; a sect 
distinguished (for the most part) by the union of true re- 
ligion with fanaticism. Persecuted by the Inquisition. 

Adamites, an ignorant and deluded class of Brethren of 
the Free Spirit, in Austria. 



In China and Tartary the Gospel was now propagated 
with some degree of success by missionaries (Franciscans) 
sent by the pope, and by the Nestorians. But the recep- 
tion of the Gospel by the people of those parts was only 
partial and temporary. 



Louis X. King of France. 
Louis IV. of Bavaria and Frederic of Austria contend for 
the empire, after the death of Henry IV. ivho had been killed 
by poison. 

After the death of Clement, the French and Italian 
parties among the cardinals contest the election of a pope 
during the space of two years. The French party at 
length procure the election of John XXII. 



Many Templars had been put to death, protesting their 
innocence of crimes alleged against them. Such was the 
fate of their last grand master this year. Only a small 
remnant of the order left. 



"f Raymond Lully 



Philip V. King of France. 
Matthew Visconti, Duke of Milan. 



The pope claims the right of deciding the contest be- 
tween Louis of Bavaria and Frederic of Austria, for the 
imperial crown ; but forbears to pronounce a decision. 



Efforts are made to effect an union between the Arme- 



286 FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII. (Fifth 

nian and Latin Churches. (Lower Armenia united, 
1323.) 

1320 The pope (John XXII.) causes the Festival of the Holy 
Trinity to be generally observed. 



f Antony Andreas (Doctor Dulcifluus] 



1322 The pope exasperates the strict Franciscans by deciding 
against their proposition, that our Lord and his Apostles 
possessed no temporal property. 

Contest of the Pope with Louis of Bavaria. 

1323 The pope refusing to acknowledge Louis as emperor, 
the latter appeals to a general council. 



| Hervseus Natalis, General of the Dominicans. 



1324 The Pope excommunicates Louis. The more strict 
Franciscans, offended with the pope on account of the part 
he had taken with reference to the controversies of their 
order, side with the emperor. William Occam writes in 
his defence. 

1325 t Francis Mayronius (Doctor Illuminatus et Acutus ; 
Magister Abstraction urn). 

About this time several individual Schoolmen, adhering 
to the scholastic system in general, began to differ from 
their brethren in their mode of treating questions of theo- 
logy. Such were Nicolas de Lyra, Brad war dine, and 
Raymond of Toulouse. 



Ave Maria to be repeated three times a day. 



1327 Louis of Bavaria, Emperor of Germany. 

# Edward III. King of England. 



Louis, having caused himself to be crowned at Rome, 
procures the deposition of the pope, and the nomination 



Period.) to the beginning of the reformation. 287 

of Nicholas V. as his successor. But he is unable to per- 
severe in a successful opposition to John. 

Some partisans of the emperor (Marsilius of Padua, 
John of Janduno) maintain in their writings the bold, 
and at this time strange, positions, that the Church pos- 
sesses only a spiritual authority ; that the pope can claim 
no higher dignity than other bishops ; and that the 
primacy of the bishop of Rome cannot be derived from 
St. Peter, the fact of whose residence at Rome is doubtful. 
These assertions contrary to public opinion. 



1328 



1329 
1330 



1332 



1333 



Philip VI. of Valois, King of France. 
Andronicus III. Emperor of Constantinople. 



The emperor quits Italy. 
Nicholas V. obliged to submit to John, and implore his 
pardon. 

The pope (John XXII.) in danger of being condemned 
as a heretic, for maintaining that the souls of the Virgin 
Mary and all saints do not attain to the beatific vision 
until the last day. He retracted his opinion shortly before 
his death. 



f Theodore Metochita. 



Unable to resist the influence of papal excommuni- 
cation and opposition, the emperor endeavours to bring 
about an accommodation with the pope. The pope in- 
sists upon absolute submission. The emperor about to 
abdicate, when the States of Germany resolve to appeal to 
a general council. 

f Nicephorus Callistus. 

j" William Durand (Doctor Resolutissimus). He pro- 
posed modifications of the doctrine of Transubstantiation. 

The leading errors of the Church of Rome were par- 
tially exposed during this century, not only by the Wal- 



288 FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII. {Fifth 

denses, but also by various writers in the course of their 
protests against practical abuses. 

Durand made some excellent remarks respecting the 
source of religious knowledge on the grounds of Christian 
doctrine. But the scholastic theology continues to be 
employed chiefly in the discussion of frivolous or captious 
questions, and in maintaining an undue deference to human 
authority in matters of belief. 



1334 Flagellants appear in Italy 



1335 The archbishop of Upsal founds a (nominally) Christ- 
ian Church in Lapland. 



1337 ( or soon after.) | Walter Burleigh (Doctor Planus et Per- 
spicuus). 

1338 Contests between England and France, for the French 
crown, begin. They last during more than a century. 



Benedict desires to throw off the yoke of France, and 
to come to a good understanding with the emperor ; also, 
to reform the corrupt clergy and monks ; but he encoun- 
ters much opposition, and is unable to effect his projects. 



1339 Beginning of the struggle between the Houses of Co- 
lonna (imperial) and Ursini (papal) at Rome. 



The Greek emperors, from political motives, still desire 
to effect a reconciliation with Rome. This year Barlaam, 
a Greek abbot, negotiates with Benedict at Avignon, but 
without success. Barlaam afterwards conformed to the 
Romish Church. 



Universities of Pisa and Grenoble founded. 
1340 T Nicolas de Lyra (Doctor Planus et Utilis). Postillse 
Perpetuas, seu Brevia Commentaria in Universa Biblia. 



Period.) to the beginning of the reformation. 289 

Nicephoras Gregoras, Byzantine historian, fl. 
* Earliest English Translations of Scripture. Rollers {of 
Hampole) Psalms, fyc. » 



1341 



1342 



1343 



Study of the Greek and Hebrew languages begins to be 
cultivated. Some approach towards a critical interpretation 
of Scripture. 

Benedict appointed a festival in honour of the (fictitious) 
wounds of St. Francis. 

The pope soon ceases to interfere in the quarrels of the 
Franciscans. 



Monks of Mount Athos (Quietists) in controversy with 
Barlaam respecting the vision of God and the nature of 
the divine light. Defended by Palamas. 

The Council of Constantinople decides in favour of the 
Monks of Mount Athos, and condemns the doctrine of 
Barlaam. 

Flagellants again in Italy. 
Beghards, many of the more strict Franciscans, and 
others, compose a motley union, under the title of Fratri- 
celli. They are continually persecuted as heretics. Great 
numbers fall victims to the Inquisition. 



John Palaiologus, Emperor of Constantinople. 
John Cantacuzenus shared the throne from 1347 to 1355. 



Clement VI. Pope ; entirely in the interests of France. 



I* Peter Paludan us (Franciscan). 
I Michael Caesenas (Dominican). 
(These two Schoolmen, Paludanus and Caesenas, were 
antagonists in the controversy concerning the poverty of 
Christ and the Apostles.) 

University of Cracow founded. 



290 FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII. (Fifth 

Louis the Great, King of Hungary, compels large 
numbers of the Cumani in Wallachia to profess (R. C.) 
Christianity. They subsequently conformed to the Greek 
Church. 



1343 * In England a statute is made against Provisions. 



Penance and Indulgences. — The pope issues a bull con- 
firming the doctrine of a treasure of supererogatory merits 
of the saints in the keeping of the Church. 



Peter Aureolus fl. (Epitome of Scripture). 
Theophanes, Archbishop of Nice, fl. (Evidences' 
1346 t John Bacon (Doctor Resolutus). 

University of Heidelberg founded. 



Battle of Cressy. 
Clement effects the deposition of Louis and the elec- 
tion of Charles IV. as Emperor of Germany. 



1347 Charles IV. of Luxemburg, Emperor of Germany. 
He preserves a good understanding with Clement and 
his successor. 

to 1354. Democracy (in Rome) under Rienzi. 



The Council of Constantinople favours the Monks of 
Mount Athos. 



t William Occam, a disciple of Duns Scotus, after- 
wards a leader of the Nominalists (Doctor Singularis et 
Venerabilis Inceptor). 

Controversy between Realists and Nominalists revived. 

(William Occam and Durand (who died in 1333) in- 
clined to that doctrine concerning the elements in the 
Lord's supper which has since been called Consubstan- 
tiation.) 

1348 t Thomas Bradwardine (Doctor Profundus). 

University of Prague founded. 



Period.) to the beginning of the reformation. 291 

The foundation of the University of Prague tended 
greatly to support the power of the Romish hierarchy in 
Bohemia. The Church in that country, having been 
founded by Greeks, had long maintained a considerable 
degree of independence, and had resisted many innova- 
tions on the part of Rome. The new university was in 
the hands of mendicant friars, zealous for the Romish 
system. 

Societies of Flagellants spread rapidly from the North 
of Germany. Clement issues a bull against them. Many 
of their members afterwards unite with Beghards and 
others in opposition to the Church ; and hence they are 
regarded as heretics. 



■o 



John, King of France. 
Continued war between Venice and Genoa. 



Persecution of Christians in Egypt. 



TJte Second Jubilee celebrated at Rome ; Clement V. 
having appointed the solemnity to take place every fifty 
years instead of once in a century. 



Council of Constantinople again in favour of the Monks 
of Mount Athos. 

Ecclesiastical abuses were now manifold and grievous. 
Such were the following : — Exclusive jurisdiction of the 
pope or Church over the clergy ; power assumed by the 
popes of granting provisions or expective graces, i.e. of 
appointing to benefices before they became vacant ; the 
exactions of annates or first fruits, i. e. the first year's in- 
come of a benefice after preferment; the taxation of the 
clergy according to the value of their benefices ; and the 
collection of Peter's Pence (in England) — all so many 
means of enriching the Roman See to the prejudice of 
states and nations. Mischiefs connected with the prero- 
gative of sanctuary. Luxury and vices of the clergy and 
monks. Erroneous doctrines (especially relating to Indul- 

u 2 



292 FROxM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII. {Fifth 

gences and Transubstantiation) and superstitious prac- 
tices ; with the absence of due religious learning and 
instruction. 

Monks and Friars. The old monastic orders were 
now the great advocates and patrons of ecclesiastical cor- 
ruptions. The Dominicans had in their hands the Inqui- 
sition and the cure of souls among the higher classes of 
society, and gradually lost the character of a mendicant 
order ; the Franciscans retained their original character, 
but were engaged in controversies and dissensions among 
themselves. 

Mystics. About this time, many individuals, under the 
influence of religious sentiment, oppose not only the dead 
ceremonial worship of the Church, but the barren metaphy- 
sical theology of the schools. 

Such were John Tauler, a Dominican, at Strasburg, 
tl361; Henry Suso, of Ulm, f 1365 ; John Ruys- 
brock, |l381; Gerard Groot, f 1384; Florentius 
Radewin, of Utrecht, f 1400; Thomas a Kempis, 
"|" 1471. These writers are usually denominated Mystics. 

Brethren and Sisters of the Free Spirit throughout this 
century in various parts of Germany ; persecuted by the 
Inquisition. 

1351 The ceremony of bowing the head at the mention of the 
name of Jesus enjoined by the Council of Beziers. 

1352 * Statute of Praemunire. 
Ottomans establish themselves in Europe. 

1353 Casimir II. King of Poland. 



f Nicephorus Gregoras. 



1354, Festival of the Spear and Nails. 

The Emperor, Charles IV. made a large collection of 
relics. 

1355 t Gregory Palamas. 



Period.) to the beginning of the reformation. 293 

Perpetual struggles between the secular clergy and the 
mendicant friars. 



The Golden Bull. 

John, King of France, defeated and made prisoner. 

The emperor sometimes manifests a disposition to pro- 
tect his rights and those of the empire against the usurped 
authority of the Roman See (Golden Bull); but at 
other times he is more submissive towards the pretended 
vicar of Christ. Weak and vacillating measures. 



* John Wickliffe, Fellow of Merton College, Oxford, de- 
nounces the avarice of ecclesiastics in a treatise entitled, 
" The Last Age of the Church." 



* Richard Fitzralph, Archbishop of Armagh, contends 
against the mendicant friars. He died in 1360. 



Rule of the order of St. Brigitta confirmed by Urban. 



Amurath I. Turkish Sultan. 



During this centurjr, the Church still makes an indus- 
trious use of excommunication and indulgence. The former 
inspires awe ; the latter procures money. 

Some individuals, however, protest against abuses of 
this kind. 

* Wickliffe takes part with the University of Oxford 
against the Mendicants. A large party in the English 
Church unites with him in denouncing ecclesiastical 
abuses. 

John Milicz, Archdeacon of Prague, preaches repent- 
ance and faith, in opposition to prevalent superstition and 
error. He is to be reckoned amongst the Precursors of 
the Reformation. 

University of Paris founded. 
f John Tauler, mystic, 
u 3 



294 FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII. (Fifth 

1363 Bernardo Visconti, of Milan, offers resistance to the 
pope. 

Petrarch promotes the request of the people of Rome 
for the return of the papal court to that city. 



136 i Charles V. the Wise, King of France. 



1365 Wickliffe. — Disputes having arisen between the secular 
clergy and Monks of Canterbury Hall, founded by Simon, 
Archbishop of Canterbury, the archbishop decides against 
the monks, and makes Wickliffe warden of the society. 
But, in the following year (1366), the new archbishop 
of Canterbury favours the Monks of Canterbury Hall. 
Wickliffe and his friends are expelled. Wickliffe appeals 
to Rome. 



136? 



University of Vienna founded. 



1369 



Urban, in compliance with the wishes of the Roman 
people, endeavours to fix his residence at Rome. But 
only a few cardinals accompany him thither. 

The Greek emperor (John V. Palaeologus) swears 
obedience to the pope and conformity to the Church of 
Rome. But his subjects persevere in opposition. The 
next emperor (Manuel) wrote against the Latins. 

Milicz, having preached at Rome, was imprisoned, and 
afterwards released. (1369.) lie preaches in Bohemia 
with increased effect. Under him many students unite 
in preparing themselves to preach the Gospel. This 
year Conrad Stickna died, distinguished by his zealous 
and powerful preaching in Bohemia, and his castigation 
of the corrupt clergy and monks. 



to 1405. Timour, or Tamerlane, makes extensive 
conquests in the East, and founds a new empire. — 
Capital, Samarcand. 

The expulsion of the Moguls from China destroys the 



Period.) to the beginning of the reformation. 295 



1370 



1371 
1872 



1373 



I374 



1375 



infant church in that country. The system of Confucius 
prevails. 

Death of Casimir the Great, King of Poland. End of 
the Piast dynasty. 

Urban, yielding to the influence of his court, returns 
to Avignon. 

# The pope decides against WicklifFe. 

# WicklifFe supports Edward III. King of England, 
in discontinuing the payment of tribute promised by John 
to the Roman See. 

*■ The English Parliament petitions that churchmen 
may not be allowed to hold secular offices. 

* Wickliffe, in favour with the English court, created 
Doctor of Divinity in Oxford. 



Turlupins, a deluded and degraded class of Brethren 
of the Free Spirit in the Isle de France, exterminated. 



John Huss born, July 6. at Hussinetz, a village of Bo- 
hemia. 

T Brigitta. 
# Winchester College founded. 



* Wickliffe appointed one of seven ambassadors to confer 
with papal commissioners concerning certain grievances of 
the English Church; is disgusted with the state of the 
papal court ; and, on his return to England, declares his 
opinion that the pope is antichrist. 



Renewed quarrel between the Pope and Visconti. 



t Petrarch. 



Sect of the Dancers, in Flanders. 
The Waldenses settled in the Valleys of Piedmont. 



Society of Fratres Communis Vitce founded by Gerard 
u 4 



296 FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII. (Fifth 

Groot : a union of priests, for preaching in the vernacular 
tongue, the instruction of youth, transcribing and circu- 
lating the Scriptures, and promoting Christian edification 
by example. 

1376 * Wickliffe. — The monks, having selected Nineteen 
Propositions from the lectures and discourses of Wickliffe, 
send them to Rome with a charge of heresy. Wickliffe 
obtains the rectory of Lutterworth, and the prebend of 
Aust in the collegiate church of Westbury. 



1377 After many urgent appeals, strengthened by the in- 
fluence of the famous Brigitta and Catherine of Sienna, 
the pope finally quits Avignon, and once more fixes the 
papal residence at Rome. 

Gerson studies at Paris. 



* Richard II. King of England. 
1378 Wenceslaus, Emperor of Germany. 



Commencement of the Great Western Schism. 

April. — Urban VI. elected pope. French cardinals 
retire to Anagni; protest against the election, as com- 
pulsory ; denounce Urban as a destroyer of the Church's 
peace ; and elect Clement VII. in opposition, who after- 
wards took up his residence at Avignon, with his cardinals. 
The whole of Western Christendom divides into two 
parties ; one supports the pope of Rome, the other the 
pope of Avignon. 

The Roman pontiff had the preeminence throughout 
the struggle. During the most flourishing period of the 
court of Avignon, its pontiffwas recognised only by France, 
Spain, Scotland, Savoy, and Lothringia ; whereas the pope 
of Rome was acknowledged as head of the Church by 
Italy, Germany, England, Denmark, Sweden, Poland, and 
Prussia. 

* Wickliffe, after a bull from the pope, ordering him 
to be imprisoned and brought to trial, defends himself 
before a convocation in St. Paul's Cathedral this year. 
He is protected by the influence of the Duke of Lancaster : 






Period.) to the beginning of the reformation. 297 



1379 



1380 



1381 



1382 



and his judges are disposed to rest satisfied with his ex- 
planations. The death of the pope (Gregory XI.) pro- 
bably prevented the issuing of a decree against him. 

* Wickliffe establishes a society of pious men, to act 
as itinerant preachers in England. They were called 
Lollards. 



Charles VI. King of France. 



Tamerlane propagates Mohammedanism in the East. 
The greater number of the Nestorian churches are de- S 
stroyed. 

* Wickliffe undertakes his English translation of the 
Bible. He begins to oppose prevalent errors respecting 
penance and absolution. 

The Schism. — Urban (at Rome) w r as acknowledged 
as pope at first by nearly all the powers of Europe, except 
France. 

Peter d'Ailly, and some other members of the Univer- 
sity of Parish recommend the convening of a general 
council for deciding the claims of the rival popes. 

# Wickliffe opposes (in part) the prevailing doctrine of 
Transubstantiation. The chancellor of Oxford prohibits 
him from maintaining his propositions on this subject, 
under pain of imprisonment. He appeals in vain to the 
king. Many of his friends alarmed. He modifies his 
statements, and continues to hold office at Oxford. 



* Charles III. King of Naples. 
t John Ruysbrock, mystic. 



* In a council held at London, Courteney, Archbishop 
of Canterbury, condemns certain propositions attributed 
to Wickliffe as heretical. The king begins to lend his 
support to the hierarchy against him. 

Wickliffe was eventually compelled to quit Oxford. 
Having retired to his rectory at Lutterworth, he there 
continued to write against the abuses and corruptions of 
the Church until his death (1384). 



298 FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII. {Fifth 

1382 University of Pest founded. 



Struggles between the Pope (Urban) and Charles III. 
King of Naples. 

1384 * t Wickliffe. 



1385 John Galeazzo Visconti at Milan. 

Urban goes to Naples, where he deposes Charles, whom 
he had made king. He is made prisoner by Charles, but 
released by a Genoese fleet. Many of his cardinals de- 
sert to Avignon. 



1387 Christianity established in Poland. Jagello, Grand 
Duke of Lithuania, in order to marry Hedwig, the Polish 
queen, and to gain the throne, embraces the profession 
of Christianity and is baptized (Wladislas V.). Com- 
pels his subjects to receive baptism. 

(Baptism was administered in Poland to the nobles in- 
dividually, but to the common people in crowds together, 
only the sexes being separated.) 



1388 A commission issued against the Lollards. 



e> 



University of Cologne founded. 



1389 Bajazet I. Sultan of the Turks. 



Feast of the Visitation of the Virgin Mary. 



The Schism materially contributes to the decline of the 
Papacy. 

1390 The Third Jubilee celebrated. Boniface had ordained 
that this solemnity should take place once in every thirty- 
three years, and had fixed this year for the celebration of 
the Jubilee, which (according to that scheme) had become 
due in the year 1383. 



Period.) to the beginning of the reformation. 299 

1391 



1392 



1394 



Manuel II. Emperor of Constantinople. 
University of Ferrara founded. 
University of Erfurt founded. 
Boniface demands payment of annates, or first fruits, 
in advance; and then defrauds the purchasers of bene- 
fices by bestowing their places upon others. 

Call for a Reformation of the Church in its head and 
members begins to be heard ; and the paramount authority of 
general councils to be asserted. 

Disturbances in Germany. The emperor made pri- 
soner by the Bohemian nobles. 



The Schism. — The University of Paris proposes, as a 
means of accommodation, that both popes should abdicate, 
or should appoint umpires, or should refer the decision 
to a general council. Clement however, by his influ- 
ence with the government, silences the university. But 
after the death of Clement, the government and university 
unite in endeavouring to prevent the election of a succes- 
sor. The cardinals at Avignon, however, elected Peter 
de Luna, under the title of Benedict XIII., having pre- 
viously bound him by oath to use his utmost efforts for 
the restoration of peace, and, if necessary, to abdicate. 

Precursors of the Reformation. 
T Matthias of Jannow (Magister Parisiensis), Confessor 
of Charles IV. By preaching and writing he had advo- 
cated the cause of vital and internal religion in opposition 
to mere ceremonies and forms, and had chastised the 
worldliness and hypocrisy of the clergy and monks. He 
represented to the emperor the existing need of a Reform- 
ation of the Church ; and the emperor applied to the pope 
on the subject. The latter denounced Matthias as a 
bold heretic — he was- banished — and subsequently lived 
at Prague in a private station. 



Nicholas de Clemangis (Rector of the University 
of Paris in 1393), publishes his celebrated work De 
Ruind Ecclesice ; exposing the corruptions of the Church, 
and predicting the Reformation. 



300 FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII. (Fifth 

1395 Gerson, Chancellor of the University of Paris. 



# Petition of the Lollards presented to Parliament. 



1396 Bajazet defeats Sigismund, King of Poland, at Nico- 
polis. 

# Wickliffe's doctrine and propositions condemned by 
the Council of London. 



1 398 The Schism. — Benedict having wearied the Univer- 
sity of Paris and the French Church by his delays and 
duplicity, is this year made prisoner in his palace at 
Avignon, when the French Church renounces its allegi- 
ance to him. In 1399 he promises to abdicate, in case 
of the abdication or death of Boniface. 

John Huss, Professor of Theology at Prague, 



University of Angers founded. 



1399 * Henry IV. of Lancaster, King of England. 



White Penitents (Bianchi), a fanatical sect in Italy. 
Their leader put to death, and the sect dispersed. 



Cen- 
tury, 



End of The chief theological controversies of this century were, — 
Four- that between the Thomists and Scotists, — one concern- 
teenth ing the poverty of Christ and his Apostles, — and another 
relating to the vision of God by disembodied spirits. The 
superstitious doctrine of Transubstantiation also began to 
be called in question more boldly and more generally 
than hitherto. 

Large numbers of reputed heretics were persecuted 
and destroyed by the Inquisition. 

Many new saints were added to the calendar, and 
various superstitions introduced, during this century. 



j400 Wenceslaus deposed. Robert (Count Palatine) Em- 
peror of Germany. 



Period.) to the beginning of the reformation. 301 

The Medici in Florence. The Visconti in Milan. 



1400 



1401 



1402 



1403 



Timour (Tamerlane) was hostile to Christianity. But 
Christians (especially Nestorians) continued to exist in 
various parts of his empire. 

Jerome of Prague labours for the "conversion of the 
remaining pagans of Lithuania ; he encounters much op- 
position. Idolatry not yet extirpated. 



Huss, Confessor to the Queen of Bohemia. 



# Henry IV. assists the bishops in their measures 
against the Lollards. Statute against them. 



University of Turin founded; also, University of Cracow 
(revived in 1817). 

* William Sawtrey, an English priest, burnt for alleged 
heresy. 

Bajazet defeated and made prisoner by Timour. Otto- 
man and Greek Empires tributary to Timour. 



Huss, Preacher at the Chapel of Bethlehem. Jerome of 
Prague returns from Oxford to Prague, where he pro- 
pagates Wickliffe's opinions ; especially after the arrival 
of two of Wickliffe's followers from Oxford in 1404. 

The Schism. — The French Church renews its obedi- 
ence to the pope of Avignon. 



University of Wurtzburg founded (revived in 1589). 

In the course of this century, literature begins to revive, 
under the favourable influence of various causes ; such as 
were, — the presence of learned Greek refugees in Italy 
— the invention of printing — the patronage of the 
great. 



302 



FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII. (Fifth 



1494 Death of Timour. His empire dismembered and de- 
stroyed. 

The Schism. — After the death of Boniface (of Rome) 
Benedict refuses to abdicate. The Roman cardinals elect 
Innocent VII. 

* Wicklifftfs doctrines condemned by the University of 
Prague, the Bohemians being outvoted by the Bavarians, 
Saxons, and Poles. 

140,5 The Festival of the Holy Trinity (introduced probably 
during the twelfth century) begins to be generally observed. 



The Roman Pope (Innocent VII.) involved in a dispute 
with Ladislaus, King of Naples. 



1406 The Schism. — Upon the death of Innocent, the Roman 
cardinals elect a pope (Gregory XII.) eighty years of 
age, hoping by this means to facilitate a termination of 
the Schism. 

Gerson, Chancellor of the University of Paris, main- 
tains the paramount authority of a general council for the 
controul, and even deposition, of a pope ; and insists upon 
the necessity of a Reformation of the Church in its head 
and in its members. 

1407 ^ HE Schism. — Gregory and Benedict had appointed 
to meet at Savona for the purpose of a joint abdication. 
Benedict goes to Savona ; Gregory advances only as far 
as Lucca, and then declares Savona an unfit place for the 
meeting. No abdication. 

1408 * Wickliffe's doctrines condemned by the Council of 
London. 

The Schism. — The Roman cardinals endeavour to 
compel Gregory to take effectual measures for the abdi- 
cation ; but in vain. Benedict, having exhausted the 
patience of France, and being threatened with imprison- 
ment, flees to Perpignan. The cardinals of both parties 
unite in convening a general council, to be held at Pisa 
in the following year. 



Period,) to the beginning of the reformation. 303 



1409 



1410 



General Council of Pisa. 

Gregory and Benedict refuse to appear. The council 
deposes both. Then, instead of establishing measures of 
reformation in the Church, as had been proposed, it pro- 
ceeds to a new election, and appoints a third pope, 
Alexander V. The new pope dissolves the council, and 
refers the consideration of reform to a future general 
council, to be held within three years. 

This council consisted of 22 cardinals, 4 patriarchs, 12 
archbishops present and 14 represented, 80 bishops pre- 
sent and 102 represented, a large number of abbots and 
superior clergy, delegates from nearly 20 universities, and 
from many of the sovereigns of Europe, and upwards of 
300 doctors of divinity and canon law. 

The Schism increased instead of terminated. Each of the 
three popes has his adherents, and each excommunicates the 
others. 

Huss. — Sbinco, Archbishop of Prague, accuses Huss at 
Rome as a follower of Wickliflfe. The pope grants a bull 
authorising him to seize WicklifFe's writings, to put his 
followers on their trial, and to forbid preaching in private 
chapels. 

Huss and Jerome, with the Bohemians, obtain an edict 
from King Wenceslaus, granting to the Bohemians of the 
University of Prague three votes out of four in all acade- 
mical transactions. The Germans retire from Prague, 
and found the University of Leipsic. (The University of 
Aix also was founded this year.) 

At this time, there are said to have been twenty thou- 
sand students in the University of Prague (founded in 
1348). 

University of Valentia founded. 



Alexander V. dies ; probably poisoned by Balthassar 
Cossa, who procures his own election as his successor, 
under the title of John XXIII. 

Huss. — The archbishop of Prague burns Wickli fife's 
works and some writings of Huss, and forbids Huss to 



304 FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII. (Fifth 



1411 



1412 



1413 



preach in the Chapel of Bethlehem. Huss remains firm in 
his profession of the truth so far as he had discovered it; 
and continues to preach. In 141 1 the pope (John XXIII.) 
condemns and excommunicates Huss ; who appeals, a papa 
male informato ad papam melius informandum. 



Sigismund, Emperor of Germany. 



University of St. Andrews founded. 



John XXIII. endeavours to conciliate the University 
of Paris, and convenes a general council at Rome, hoping 
to establish his authority to the exclusion of his rivals ; 
but in vain. 

D'Ailly and Gerson in their writings insist upon the 
necessity of a general council, entirely free and indepen- 
dent, for a radical Reformation of the Church. The 
Emperor Sigismund presses the same point. 

The pope's legate, sent with the pallium to the new 
archbishop of Prague, takes with him a bull for the 
issue of Indulgences to all who should join a crusade 
against Ladislaus, King of Naples. Huss and Jerome 
protest against the doctrine and sale of Indulgences. 

A fresh bull against Huss — the place of his residence 
laid under an interdict. Huss appeals from the judgment of 
the pope to the judgment of Christ. About this time he 
writes his book De Ecclesia ; (in which he erroneously 
denies the existence of a visible external church, and main- 
tains that the true church is only invisible and spiritual). 

Huss quits Prague, and retires to his native village. 

$• Several of Wickliffe's writings condemned by the 
pope in a council at Rome. 



* Henry V. King of England. 



1414 Peace between the Pope and the King of Naples. 



Period.) to the beginning of the reformation. 305 



General Council of Constance, 

for the termination oftheSchism, and the extirpation of Heresy, 
John wished the council to be considered as a continu- 
ation of that of Pisa, in which case it must acknowledge 
him as pope ; but D'Ailly and his supporters carried the 
motion, that it should be entirely independent and supreme, 
and in a condition to depose all three popes if necessary. 
John desired that the council should confine its acts to mat- 
ters of doctrine and the extirpation of heresy ; but it was 
carried by D'Ailly and his party that the Reformation of the 
Church in its head and in its members should form a chief 
subject of the deliberations. John proposed that none but 
bishops and abbots should have seats and voices in the 
council, hoping to secure a majority on his side by means 
of titular bishops and abbots in his train ; but the pro- 
posal of D'Ailly and his friends prevailed, to the effect 
that all those who exercised the office of teaching and 
preaching in the Church should be admitted to vote. 
Lastly, John desired that the votes should be taken indi- 
vidually, but it was resolved that they should be taken by 
nations collectively, i, e. the deputies of each of the four 
nations, Germany, Italy, France, and England, should 
first make decrees by majority of votes in separate assem- 
blies ; and then those which had been enacted by the 
majority of nations should be adopted by the general 
assembly, and proclaimed as the decrees of the council. 

In February, 1415, charges of impiety and profaneness 
were preferred against John. Abdication being pressed 
upon him, John escaped from the council, and fled to Shaff- 
hausen. This involved the danger of a dissolution of the 
council; but the firmness of the emperor and the influ- 
ence of Gerson prevailed so as to keep it together; and it 
was resolved, " that the Council of Constance, as representa- 
tive of the Church Militant, derives its authority immediately 
from Christ, and that every one, not excepting the pope, is 
bound to submit to it in matters relating to faith, to the re- 
moval of the schism, and to the Reformation of the Church in 

x 



306 FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII. (Fifth 

its head and members." Proceedings were then instituted 
against John, who was eventually deposed, and made 
prisoner. Gregory abdicated. Benedict, after some re- 
sistance, being deserted by the Spaniards, was deposed, in 
the thirty-seventh session of the council, a.d. 1417. 

The emperor now urged upon the council the necessity 
of proceeding to make provision for the Reformation 
of the Church, especially in its head, before electing a 
new pope. The great majority, however, objected to this 
course, and were even prepared to denounce the emperor 
as a favourer of the Hussite heresy (as it was termed), and as 
denying the necessity for any visible head of the Universal 
Church. At first Germany and England, but afterwards 
Germany alone, espoused the cause of the emperor. 
Sigismund was obliged to yield; and the council pro- 
ceeded, in the first place, to the election of a new pope — - 
Martin V. 

Decrees for reformation, partial and imperfect ; and 
some of these afterwards rendered nugatory. It was 
enacted, that in matters of faith no appeal should be made 
from the pope, nor any protest against his decision be 
allowed; contrary to principles established by the Council 
of Pisa. 

No real Reformation effected by this Council. 

The pope dissolved the council in its forty-fifth session ; 
and having granted to all its members and their attend- 
ants a full absolution for all sins to the hour of their 
death, on condition of their fasting (or performing some 
other good works) every Friday throughout two years, 
he left Constance (May 16. 1418), his horse being led by 
the emperor and the elector of Brandenburg; 40,000 
gentry and clergy following in procession. 

Hnss summoned to appear before the Council of Constance ; 
arrives at Constance on the 3d of November; made 
prisoner, notwithstanding the emperor's safe conduct. The 
emperor orders his liberation; but he is told that, as a lay- 
man, he cannot interfere in such matters; and that a pro- 
mise made to a heretic is not binding. 



Period.) to the beginning of the reformation. 307 

June 5, 7, 8. — Huss brought before the council. A 
total recantation of his alleged errors, and absolute sub- 
mission to the council required, and refused. Huss con- 
demned as a heretic, degraded, delivered to the secular arm, 
and burnt (July 6.). 

Jerome seized in April ; brought prisoner to Constance ; 
defended his opinions before the council (May 23.) ; sub- 
scribed to the doctrine of Transubstantiation (July 19.); 
after a wearisome imprisonment, he recanted all the 
doctrines attributed to himself, Huss, and Wickliffe, and 
professed his approval of the condemnation of Huss and 
his doctrines (September 11.) ; but he was still detained in 
prison under the suspicion of his enemies. 

(The council rejected forty-five of Wickliffe's propo- 
sitions as heretical ; but the doctrines of Wickliffe continued 
to gain ground in TLngland and in Bohemia, tending greatly 
to pave the way for the Reformation.) 

(The Council of Constance was attended by the em- 
peror and empress, with a train of 1000 followers, — 3 pa- 
triarchs, 22 cardinals (including D'Ailly), 20 archbishops, 
92 bishops (at first, afterwards more), 124 abbots (each 
with large attendance), many princes (with large retinues) 
and ambassadors, 1800 priests, and a still larger number 
of other clergy, many doctors of divinity and canon law, 
deputies from several universities (including Gerson, 
Chancellor of Paris), and a large body of monks. 



1414 



Ninety-one Flagellants burnt this year by the Inqui- 
sition. 

* The followers of Wickliffe (Lollards) severely perse- 
cuted in England. 

Communion in both kinds. Jacobellus de Misa, friend of 
Huss, at Prague, insists upon the necessity of receiving 
the communion in both kinds. Huss declares such admi- 
nistration to be conformable to primitive practice, and 
desirable ; but dissuades from violent measures for obtain- 
ing the privilege. Opposition to the Council of Constance, 

x 2 



308 FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII. {Fifth 

which had determined that the Lord's supper had been 
instituted in both kinds, but that the Church possessed 
authority to order the administration in one kind only ; 
and that all who should not submit to the Church and 
Council in this respect would deserve to be punished as 
heretics. 



1415 
1416 



1417 



1419 



1420 



Battle of Agincourt. 



(al. 1418.) * Sir John Oldcastle, Lord Cobham, exe- 
cuted for alleged heresy, &c. 

Jerome of Prague. Fresh charges having been pre- 
ferred against Jerome, he was brought before the council 
(May 23. and 26. this year). Here he vindicates the 
memory of Huss, and formally revokes his timid recan- 
tation. Condemned and burnt (May 30.). 

War of the Hussites. At Prague the Hussites demand 
the administration of the communion in both kinds. 
Some thousands rise in arms under Ziska and Nicholas of 
Hussinetz, retire to a mountain, and build a town (Tabor), 
as a place of rendezvous for their party. Thus begins 
the war of the Hussites. 



The Emperor Sigismund, after the death of Wenceslaus, 
becomes King of Bohemia. 

f Vincentius Ferrarius (Ferreri), a Spanish Dominican. 

(He had preached in Spain, France, and Italy. In 
1406 he was in England. He headed several processions 
of Flagellants, but was dissuaded from the practice by 
Gerson.) 

University of Rostock founded. 



Treaty of Troyes. Henry V. of England acknowledged 



heir to the Kingdom of France. 



War of the Hussites. The Hussites begin to divide 
into two parties, the more moderate demanding only the 



Period.) to the beginning of the reformation. 309 

restoration of the cup to the laity, the translation and ex- 
position of services in the vernacular tongue, improvement 
of Church discipline, and reducing the revenues of the 
clergy (Calixtines, Utraquists), — others desiring to carry 
reform to still greater lengths, and to restore apostolical 
simplicity (Taborites). 



1422 



1423 



1424 

1425 
1426 

1429 



Study of Theology. — About this time some divines of 
the University of Paris contended for a reformation of 
theology, against the scholastic method of teaching. The 
improvements which they proposed were, however, partial 
and imperfect; and the erroneous and false views which 
they themselves entertained contributed, in a great degree, 
to neutralise their efforts. Among these men wereckon 
Peter d'Ailly, Archbishop of Cambray (f 1425), Gerson 
(| 1429), Nicholas de Clemangis (t cir. 1440.). 



# Henry VI. (a minor) King of England. 

The son of Charles VI. of France claims the throne of 
that kingdom, under the title of Charles VII. 

Temporal princes now begin successfidly to vindicate their 
authority against the tyranny and encroachments of the 
pope. 

At Constance the pope had fixed upon this year as the 
date of the next general council, to be held at Pavia. A 
council was opened there, but soon afterwards transferred 
to Sienna; and then dissolved, after the transaction of 
some unimportant business under the presidency of a 
papal legate. Next council to be held at Basle (1431). 

War of the Hussites. \ Ziska. Procopius Rasa, General 
of the Hussites. 



t Peter d'Ailly. 
University of Louvain founded. 



Clement VIII. resigns. Martin V, sole Pope. 
End of the Great Western Schism. 



x 3 



310 FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII. (Fifth 

1429 Maid of Orleans. Charles VII. King of France, 
crowned at Rheims. 



t Gerson, Chancellor of the University of Paris (Doc- 
tor Venerabilis et Christianissimns). 



1430 University of Caen founded. 

14dl University of Poitiers founded. 

Rise of the Medici family at Florence (Cosmo de 
Medici). 

General Council of Basle, 

under the presidency of Cardinal Julianus Cesarini, as 
pope's legate. The tone of this council appears bold and 
independent. The pope, under certain pretexts, endeavours 
to suspend its proceedings, and to cause it to postpone its 
sessions until it should re-assemble at Bologna, after the 
lapse of a year and a half. The council resists the at- 
tempt, and asserts its superiority over the pope. Fruit- 
less negotiations take place, until at length the pope 
dissolves the council by a bull in 1437. The council 
resists for some time ; but the German princes fearing a 
new schism, and the pope having been obliged by worse 
troubles at Rome to flee to Florence, the matter is ad- 
justed. The bull revoked ; but proceedings of the coun- 
cil suspended for a time. 

In 1434 the council passes various decrees adapted to 
limit the power of the pope, and to promote the reform- 
ation of the Church. The pope finds fault with these 
proceedings. In 1437 he convenes a new general council 
at Ferrara. The legate quits Basle ; but the Council of 
Basle continues its sessions after the opening of the pope's 
council, and suspends the pope. 

The two general councils excommunicate each other; 
and as the former schism had weakened the poiver of the 
popes, this destroyed the influence of general councils. 



Period.) 
1431 



TO THE BEGINNING OF THE REFORMATION. 



311 



1433 



1434 



1436 



1438 



The Feast of the Immaculate Conception was confirmed 
by the Council of Basle. 



University of Florence founded. 



The Council of Basle negotiates with the Hussites. Three 
hundred deputies of that party at Basle (January 9.). Dis- 
putation of fifty days. Council at length assents to the 
four articles of the Calixtines, with certain modifications 
and restrictions. The Taborites refuse to acquiesce. 

Calixtines unite with the Romanists against the Tabor- 
ites, who are entirely defeated (May 30.) near Prague. 

Phil. M. Visconti, of Milan, opposed to the Pope. 



The strict Franciscans now compose a separate order of 
the Hermits of St. Francis, or Minimi. (Confirmed by 
papal authority in 1474). 

Breach of faith, on the part of the pope and emperor, 
with the Calixtines, leads to fresh disturbances in Bo- 
hemia. 

Albert of Austria, Emperor of Germany. 
The Pragmatic Sanction established in France. 



The pope opened his council at Ferrara in 1438 ; trans- 
ferred it to Florence in 1439 ; and thence to Rome in 
1442. 

The Greek Emperor, John VII. (Palseologus), accom- 
panied by many Greek prelates, attends the councils at 
Ferrara and Florence, with a view to the union of the 
Greek and Latin Churches. Greeks differ among them- 
selves. Marcus Eugenicus, Bishop of Ephesus, contends 
for strict Greek orthodoxy against Bessarion, Bishop of 
Nicaea, who favours the emperor's proposals. Articles of 
union, however, were completed (1439) ; but, the strict 
Greek orthodox persevering in their opposition, the union 
did not take effect. From this time however, and especially 

x 4 



312 FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII. {Fifth 

I after the capture of Constantinople, the Latinising party 
in the Greek Church increased. 
1439 The German princes resolve to adopt the decrees of 
the Council of Basle, so far as they do not affect the 
pope's person. The council (25th of June, 1439) de- 
poses Eugenius as a disturber of the peace, a heretic, and 
perjured. Felix V. appointed to succeed. This appoint- 
ment recognised by only a few universities and towns, 
and the council unable to maintain its position. Many 
of its adherents, including iEneas Sylvius Piccolomini, 
go over to the opposite party. 

The Council of Basle continued to lose its influence. 
In 1448 it removed to Lausanne ; and here dissolved, in 
1449, having recognised Nicholas V. as pope. 



The doctrine of Purgatory declared to be an article of 
faith by the Council of Florence. 



1440 Frederick III. of Austria, Emperor of Germany. 
(A weak emperor, devoted to the interests of the Papal 
See.) 



1441 j* Nicholas de Clemangis (Doctor Theologus). 

University of Bordeaux, and # Eton College, founded. 
Invention of the Art of Printing. 



1444 Battle of Varna. Ladislaus, King of Hungary and 
Poland, defeated and slain bv the Turks under Amurath II. 



1445 Eugenius deposes the archbishops of Cologne and 
Treves on account of their adherence to Felix. The de- 
posed bishops were also electors of Germany ; hence the act 
of Eugenius appeared as an attack upon the dignity of the 
empire and the liberties of the German Church. In the 
following year (1446), the body of electors, assembled at 
Frankfort-on-the- Maine, resolved to demand from the pope 



Period.) to the beginning of the reformation. 313 

a declaration securing the liberties of their national church, 
a recognition of the decrees of Constance and Basle con- 
cerning the authority of general councils, restoration of 
the deposed archbishops, and the assembling of a council 
in Germany. They resolve, in case of the pope's refusal, 
to declare for Felix. Eugenius at first threatened resist- 
ance ; but at length, by the mediation of ./Eneas Sylvius, 
who modified the demands of the electors, the pope com- 
plied, and the whole German Church submitted to 
Eugenius shortly before his death (1447). 

University of Catania founded. 



1446 * The English have now lost all their possessions in 
France, except Calais. 

1447 The electors of Germany, at Aschaffenberg, resolved 
that, for the security of the liberties of the German Church, 
its relation to the pope should be defined by a diet at 
Nuremberg. But, in 1448, the emperor, on behalf of 
the German nation, concluded a Concordat with the 
pope at Vienna, favourable to papal interests, by the in- 
fluence of iEneas Sylvius, Bishop of Trieste. 



1448 Constantine XL (PaLuEologus) Emperor of 
Cons tantinople. 



1450 * University of Glasgow founded. 

The pope prohibits the compulsory baptism of Jews in 
Sicily; but commands them to hear sermons four times 
a year, under pain of capital punishment. 



The Jubilee was celebrated at Rome this year, accord- 
ing to the constitution of Clement VI. 



to 1466. Francis Sforza, Duke of Milan. 



1453 Constantinople taken by the Turks under Mahom- 
met II. 

End of the Eastern or Greek Empire. 



314 FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII. (Fifth 

1454 * End of English Government in France, 



University of Treves founded. 
T Alphonso Tostatus (Commentary on Scripture). 
About this time, the study of classical antiquity revives 
in Italy. 
1456 Universities of Greifswald and Freiburg founded. 



# Civil wars in England between the Houses of York 
and Lancaster. 



The pope (Calixtus) endeavours in vain to promote a 
Crusade against the Turks. 



The electors of Germany demand some security of 
the liberties of the national church, similar to the Prag- 
matic Sanction obtained by France in 1438, as the con- 
dition of their recognising Calixtus as pope. But the 
emperor, convinced by ^Eneas Sylvius of the identity of 
the imperial and papal interests, acknowledges Calixtus 
(1456) without further hesitation. The protestation of 
the electors tended to encourage some men to raise their 
voices against the (pretended) divine authority, and the 
necessity, of papal government. 

The Feast of the Transfiguration made general in the 
Western Church. (This was generally observed, as a high 
festival, in the Greek Church, as early as the sixth century; 
introduced into the West before the close of the eighth). 

145*7 Formation of the Church of the Bohemian (and Mo- 
ravian) Brethren (Unitas Fratrum), from the remnant of 
the Hussites. 

14-58 By the abilities and energy of iEneas Sylvius as pope 
(Pius II.), the Papacy obtains a temporary revival of its 
influence. The two leading objects of this pontiff were, 
the promotion of a Crusade against the Turks, and the 
preservation of the absolute supremacy of the Papal See, 
in opposition to the innovating spirit of the age. 



Period.) to the beginning of the reformation. 315 

#■ Reginald Pecock, Bishop of Chichester, deposed, on 
account of alleged errors, &c. i. e. opinions nearly in ac- 
cordance with those of WicklifFe. 

At the General Council of Mantua, Pius fails in his 
attempts to set on foot a Crusade. He procures a prohi- 
bition of all appeals from the pope to a general council; and 
the condemnation of the principles of Constance and 
Basle on this head as heretical. 

Appeals by German princes from the pope to a general 
council followed by excommunication and defeat. 



University of Basle founded. 



* Edward IV. King of England. 
Louis XL King of France. 
Ivan Basilowitz the Great, Grand Duke of Russia, 
founder of the independence of the Russian Empire. 



Controversy concerning the honour due to the blood 
of Christ apart from his body. 



After various disputes and accommodations with the 
Calixtines, the pope finally refuses to confirm the com- 
pact of Basle. The Calixtines henceforth a private party, 
or sect, until the sixteenth century. 

Pius II. explicitly retracts his former liberal principles 
and writings. 



University of Bourges founded. 
T Nicholas de Cusa. A strenuous supporter of eccle- 
siastical tradition, to the disparagement of Scripture. 
An opponent of the scholastic system, in his treatise De 
Docta Ignorantia. 

t Laurentius Valla (Annotations on the New Testa- 
ment). 

(1464-9.) Pietro de Medici, at Florence. 

Diet of Nuremburg. 



316 FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII. {Fifth 

1467; The Church of the Bohemian Brethren suffers violent 
and cruel persecution from the Church of Rome ; which 
lasts, at intervals, through many years. The Brethren 
distinguished by their simplicity of faith, meekness, and 
patience in suffering. 

Erasmus born, at Rotterdam. 
(1469-92.) Lorenzo de Medici, at Florence. 



1471 The new pope (Sixtus IV.) became infamous by 
taking part in a conspiracy against the House of Medici, 
and by licensing houses of ill-fame at Rome for the sake 
of revenue. 

j* Thomas a Kempis. 

1472 Bessarion, Patriarch of Constantinople, afterwards 
Roman Cardinal (Defender of Latin tenets). 

University of Ingolstadt founded. 

1474 University of Saragossa founded. 

Order of the Hermits of St. Francis (Minimi) esta- 
blished by papal authority. 

1475 P au l II- ( m 1470) having finally ordained that the 
Jubilee should be celebrated every twenty-five years, it 
became due this year, but failed to attract to Rome so 
great a concourse as formerly. 



* In England, various individuals were burnt for 
heresy, from time to time. 



1 477 A German translation of the Bible, from the Vulgate ; 
badly executed. 

Universities of Mentz, Tubingen, and Upsal, founded. 
(Mentz revived, 1784.) 
1479 University of Copenhagen founded. 



Union of Arragon and Castile. Ferdinand II. (1479 
—1516); and Isabella (1504). 



Precursors of the Reformation. — John Bur chard (of 
Wesel) having opposed many prevalent errors, especially 



Period.) to the beginning of the reformation. 317 

those relating to Indulgences, brought to trial by the 
archbishop of Mentz. He consents to modify his state- 
ments ; but his writings are burnt, and himself con- 
demned to perpetual confinement in a monastery, where 
he died (1482). 



1480 



1481 
1482 
1483 



1484 
1485 

1486 

1487 

1489 



Beginning of the Italian wars between France, Naples, 
the Emperor, and Venice. 

During these contests, the popes form alliances some- 
times with one of the opposite parties, and sometimes with 
the other. 



Establishment of the Inquisition in Spain. 
Celebration of the first Auto-da- Fe in Spain. 



Bonaventura canonized. 

QEcolampadius born. 

Martin Luther born, at Eisleben. 



to 1498. Charles VIII. King of France. 
# Edward V. and afterwards Richard III. King of 
England. 

Ulrich Zwingle born. 



* Henry VII. (Tudor) King of England. 
His marriage with the daughter of Edward IV. puts 
an end to the civil wars. 



i George of Trapezond (Latin translator of the Greek 
Fathers). 

to 1489. Independence of Switzerland. 



Crusade against the Waldenses, encouraged by the 
promise of a plenary indulgence from the pope. 



t John Wessel, Professor of Theology at Fleidelberg, 
Colonne, Lyons, Paris, and lastly at Groningen. 

He had maintained publicly that the Bible is the only 



318 FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII. {Fifth 

infallible source of Christian knowledge, and had taught the 
doctrines of repentance and justification in a manner op- 
posed to the errors of the dominant church. 
1490 Another German translation of the Bible, from the 
Vulgate. 

1492 Capture of Granada by Ferdinand and Isabella. 

End of the Saracen Empire in Spain. 



Columbus discovers America. 



During the late pontificates, the corruption and profli- 
gacy of the court of Rome had risen to an enormous height. 
This year, the profligate and abandoned Cardinal Borgia, 
having purchased the votes of the college, was made pope, 
under the title of Alexander VI. His whole pontificate was 
signalised by disgraceful vices, his leading aim throughout 
being to enrich his (illegitimate) children, especially the 
dissolute Csesar Borgia. For this object perfidy and poi- 
son were continually employed. 



1493 Maximilian I. Emperor of Germany. 

1494 Expedition of Charles VIII. of France into Italy. 
Italian wars until 1559. 



Monasteries belonging to Dominicans now amount to 



4143. 



1495 



T John Picus of Mirandola. 
t Gabriel Biel. 



The Jews in Spain and Portugal compelled to embrace 
the profession of Christianity. In Portugal, their children 
(under fourteen years of age) are instructed in Christian 
doctrine. In Granada, Ximenes causes several thousand 
Mohammedans to be baptized without instruction. 



The Power of the Roman See is now very much 
impaired. 



Period.) to the beginning of the reformation. 319 

Scandalous profligacy, avarice, and cruelty of Pope 
Alexander VL and his family. 



Melanchthon born. 



Vasco de Gama discovers a new passage to India by 
the Cape of Good Hope. 

Louis XII. King of France. 



Precursors of the Reformation. - — Jerome Savonarola, a 
Dominican, who had for some time past preached scrip- 
tural doctrines at Florence with great effect, accused of 
heresy, condemned, tortured, and burnt. 



University of Alcala (Complutum) founded, 
(j* Marsilius Ficinus, a Platonist.) 



During this century, the labours of various witnesses of 
truth had succeeded to a certain extent in correcting pre- 
valent errors respecting, — the authority of Scripture as 
the rule of faith ; justification and good works ; absolution 
and indulgence ; invocation of saints, and the use of 
images ; the nature of the eucharist. 

The preaching of God's word had, for a long time 
past, been obscured by false philosophy and pretended 
learning, and debased by an admixture of legends and 
fables. 

Many new saints were added to the calendar during 
this century. 

General corruption of morals continues to prevail. 



Christianity makes little progress in the newly disco- 
vered regions of Western Africa and America. Laudable 
efforts of the Spanish Bishop, Bartholomew de las Casas, 
almost fruitless. Low state of religion among the con- 
querors, and the cruelties which they exercised, contri- 
buted mainlv to this result. 



320 FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII. {Fifth 

1500 New Persian dynasty founded by Ismael Sopbi. 



1501 
1502 

1503 



1505 



1506 



Martin Luther enters the University of Erfurt. 



University of Wittemberg founded. 
Revival of Literature and the study of the Classics in 
Germany. 

Sodalitas Literaria Rhenana. 



Naples under the power of Spain. 

The pope (Alexander) killed by accidentally taking 
poison, which he had caused to be prepared for one of his 
cardinals. 

Before the election of a new pope, the cardinals took 
an oath, to the effect that a general council should be 
holden within two years. And the same oath was taken 
by Julius after his election. 

Julius was constantly involved in wars or political 
intrigues, undertaken for the promotion of his ambitious 
designs. 



At the beginning of this century, the Moravian Bre- 
thren possess two hundred places of worship. 

Martin Luther enters an Augustinian monastery at 
Erfurt. He studies the Bible and writings of Augustin ; 
becomes convinced of the inutility of ascetic exercises for 
the attainment of holiness, and learns to look for salvation 
by simple, humble, and devoted faith in Christ. In these 
pursuits he is supported by a brother monk, and by 
Staupitz, the general vicar of his order. 

The animating and invincible principle of the Reform- 
ATION — the Scriptural truth of Justification by Free 
Grace through Faith in Christ alone — begins to 
come into operation. 

University of Frankfort-on-the-Oder founded. 



Building of St. Peter's Church at Rome begun (com- 
pleted in 1614). 



Period.) to the beginning of the reformation. 321 

1508 League of Cambray. The pope, the emperor, and the 
king of France, combine against Venice. 



Luther appointed Professor of Philosophy in the University 
of Wittemberg. 



1509 * Henry VIII. King of England. 

* Cardinal Wolsey in favour with Henry VIII. and 
very powerful in England. 

The Knights of St. John (Hospitalers) settled in Malta. 



Luther appointed Preacher at Wittemberg. 
Erasmus in Oxford. 



1510 Luther goes to Pome on a deputation from his order. 
He is shocked by the corruption in discipline and morals 
prevalent at the papal court; and more deeply than ever 
impressed with this great truth, — " The just shall live by 
faith." 

The pope, having continually delayed the convening of 
a promised council, the king of France, and afterwards 
the emperor Maximilian, press for the fulfilment of the 
pledge given, and threaten to enforce it. The emperor 
afterwards sides with the pope. 

1511 This year a general council convened at Pisa by the 
influence of France, takes measures against the pope. 
Council thinly attended ; transferred to Milan, thence 
to Asti, thence to Lyons, and dissolved next year without 
effect. 

The pope himself takes the field against France : lays 
the kingdom under an interdict. 

1512 The pope at length convenes a general council at Rome 
(Late ran). 

Luther created a Doctor in Divinity. He disentangles 
himself more and more from the scholastic system ; proclaims 
an unusual amount of scriptural truth in his sermons, and in 
his lectures on the Bible and Augustin. 

1513 The celebrated Cardinal, John Medici, made Pope — 
Leo X. : naturally kind and benevolent, but luxurious 
and fond of pomp; distinguished by his refined taste, and 

Y 



322 FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII. {Fifth 

and his patronage of arts and literature ; but without due 
religious sentiment, and immoderate in his extortion for 
the sake of supporting his prodigal expenses. 
1513 * In England a question is keenly agitated concerning 
the subjection of ecclesiastics to the common courts of 
law. 

Reuchlin, having opposed a plan for the burning of 
Jewish books, is accused of heresy. He appeals to the 
pope, who decides in his favour. 
1,514 Melanchthon takes part with Reuchlin against the theo- 
logians of Cologne. 

# In England fresh acrimony is given to the contro- 
versy concerning ecclesiastical exemptions. 



1515 Louis XII. of France dies, without having been able to 
accomplish his designs against the Papacy (Perdam Ba- 
bylonis nomen). 

Francis I. King of France. 

1516 Francis concludes a Concordat with Leo, repealing 
the Pragmatic Sanction. 

Charles I. King of Spain, Naples, Sicily, and the 
Netherlands. 



Erasmus publishes an edition of the Greek Testament 
with a Latin translation — an improvement upon the Vul- 
gate — and notes. 

The monks oppose the growing taste for literature, and 
Reuchlin. Their ignorance exposed by Reuchlin's friends 
in the satirical Epistolse Obscurorum Virorum. 



1517 Syria and Egypt in the power of the Turks (Selim I. 
Sultan, 1512). 

Christianity introduced into Spanish America. 



Period. 



TO THE BEGINNING OF THE REFORMATION. 



323 



List of Popes, Patriarchs, and Archbishops of 
Canterbury, from the Year 1073 to 1513. 



1073. 


GREGORY VII. 


1156 


. Lucas Chrysoberges. " 


1075. 


Comus I. 


1159 


Alexander III. "1 rival 
Victor IV. J Po P es - 


1080. 


Clement III. 






Antipope. 





Michael III. 


1081. 


Eustratus Garidas. 


1162 


* T. Becket. 


1084. 


Nicholas III. 


1164. 


Paschal III. 


1085. 


Victor III. 




in place of Victoe IV. 


1088. 


Urban II. 


1168. 


Calixtus III. 


1093. 


* Anselm. 




in place of Paschal III. 


1099. 


Paschal II. 


1171. 


* Richard. 


1111. 


John IX. 


1177. 


Chariton. 


1114. 


* Rodolph. 


1178. 


Theodosius Borradiotes. 


1118. 


Gelasius II. 


1181. 


Lucius III. 




Gregory VIII. 


1183. 


Basil II. 




Antipope. 


1184. 


* Baldwin. 


1119. 


Calixtus 11. 




■ 


1122. 


* W. Corbeih 


1185. 
1186. 


Urban III. 
Nicetas II. 


1124. 


HONORIUS II. 


1187. 


Gregory VIII. 


1130. 


Two popes elected : — • 
Innocent 11. 




Clement III. 












1190. 


Leontius Thootocites. 




Anacletus II. 






1134. 
1137. 


Leo Stypiota. 
Victor III. 

succeeds Anacletus. 


1191. 


Celestin III. 

Dositheus. 

* Reginald Fitz-Jocelin. 


1138. 


Innocent II. 


1193. 


George II. Xiphilin. 




sole Pope. 


— 


* Hubert Walter. 





* Theobald. 


1198. 


Innocent III. 


1143. 


Celestin II. 


— 


John X. 





Michael II. 


N.B 


Latin Patriarchs at Constan- 


1144. 


Lucius II. 


tinople. 




1145. 


Eugenius III. 


1206. 


Michael IV. 


1146. 


Comus II. 


1207. 


* Stephen Langton. 


1147. 


Nicholas IV. 


1213. 


Theodore III. 


1151. 


Theodore II. 


1215. 


Maximus I. 


1153. 


Anastasius IV. 


— 


Manuel I. 


1154. 


Adrian IV. 


1216. 


Honorius III. 





Constantine IV. 


1221. 


Germanus II. 



Y 2 



324 



FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII. 



(Fifth 



1227. Gregory IX. 
1229. * R. Wethershed. 
1234. * Edmund. 

1240. Methodius II. 

See of Constantinople vacant. 

1241. Celestin IV. 
(eighteen days). Interregnum of 

twenty months. 

1243. Innocent IV. 

1244. Manuel 1 L 

1245. * Boniface. 
1254. Alexander IV. 
1255- Arsenius I. 

1260. Nicephorus II. 

1261. Urban IV. 

1265. Clement IV. 

1266. Germanus III. 

1267. Joseph I. 

1268. "j* Clement IV. 

No pope until 1271. 

1271. Gregory X. 

1272. * Robert Kilwardy. 

1 274. John Beccus or Veccus, 
Joseph deposed. 

1276. Innocent V. 

— Adrian V. 

— John XXI. (or XX.) 

1277. Nicholas III. 

1278. * J. Peckham. 

1281. Martin IV. 

1282. Joseph I. 

restored. 

1283. Gregory II 
1285. Honorius IV. 

1288. Nicholas IV. 

1289. Athanasius I. 

1292. See of Rome vacant, until 

1294. 

1293. John XII 

Athanasius deposed. 

1294. After Celestin V. Boni- 

face VII. 

# Robert Winchelsey. 

1303. Benedict XL 

— Athanasius, 

restored. 
Roman See vacant. 



1305. Clement V. 
1311. Niphon I. 
1313. * Walter Raynold. 
1316. John XXII. (XXI.) 

— John XIII. 
1320. Gerasimus I. 

See of Constantinople vacant. 

1323. Isaiah. 

1328. * Simon Mepham. 

1333. John XIV. 

— * John Strafford. 

1334. Benedict XII. 
1342. Clement VI. 
1347. Isidore I. 

1349. * Thomas Bradwardine. 

— * Simon Islip. 

1350. Callistus I. 
1352. Innocent VI. 

1354. Philotheus, 

Callistus deposed. 

1 355. Callistus, 

restored. 

] 362. Urban V. 

— Philotheus, 

restored. 

1366. * Simon Langham. 
1368. * William Wittlesey. 
1370. Gregory XL 

1375. * Simon Sudbury. 

1376. Macarius. 

1378. Urban VI. (Rome) and 
Clement VII. (Avignon). 

1379. Nilus. 

1381. * William Courteney. 
1387. Antonius IV. 
1389. Boniface IX. (Rome). 
1394. BenedictXIiI.( Avignon). 
1396. Callistus II. 

— * Thomas Arundel. 
1398. Matthew I. 

1404. Innocent VII. (Rome). 

1406. Gregory XII. (Rome). 

1409. Gregory XII. 1 , , 

>- deposed. 
Benedict XIII. J 



Period.) to the beginning of the reformation. 



1409. Alexander V. 
elected by the Council of Pisa. 

( Three Popes at one time.) 

1410. John XXIII. (XXII.) 

in the room of Alexander V. 

— Euthymius II. 

1414. * Henry Chicheley. 

1415. Gregory abdicates. John 

XXIII. (XXII.) deposed. 

1416. Joseph II. 

1417. Martin V. (Rome). 
1424. Clement VIII. (Avignon.) 
1429. Clement VIII. resigns. 

Martin V. sole Pope. 
1431. Eugenius IV. 
1440. Metrophanes II. 

See of Constantinople vacant. 

1443. * John Stafford. 
1445. Gregory III. 
1447. Nicholas V. 

See of Constantinople vacant. 

1452. * J. Kemp. 

1453. Gennadius II. 

1454. * Thomas Bouchier. 



1455. Calixtus III. 

1457. Isidore II. 

1458. Pius II. 

— Jehosaphat I. 

N. B. Great confusion in the See of 
Constantinople during the remainder of 
this century. The following are the 
names of the Patriarchs ; dates of succes- 
sion uncertain • — 

Mark I. Maximus II. 

Simeon. Niphon II 

Dionysius I. Maximus III. 

Mark II. Joachim. 

Raphael I. Pachomiusl. (•$* 1513). 

1464. Paul II. 

1471. Sixtus IV. 

1484. Innocent VIII. 

1486. * John Morton. 

1492. Alexander VI. 

1501. * Henry Dean. 

1503. Pius III. 

— Julius II. 

— * William Warham. 
1513. LEO X. 

— Theoleptus I. 



Councils from the Year 1073 to 1512. 



1073. 


Erford. Rouen. Poi- 


1084. 


Rome (under Clement). 




tiers. 


— 


Rome (under Gregory ; 


1074. 


Poitiers. Rome. Rouen. 




mutual excommunica- 




Paris. 




tion and deposition). 


1075. 


Rome. 


1085. 


Rome (under Clement). 


— 


* England. 


— 


Quedlinburg (by Gregory's 


— 


Spalatro (on discipline). 




party). 


1076. 


Worms. Rome. * Win- 


— 


Mentz (in favour of Cle- 




chester. 




ment). 


1076, 


1077. Dijon. Autun. 


1087. 


Capua. Benevento. 


1078. 


Rome. Poitiers. * London. 


1089. 


Rome (under Urban). 


1079. 


Rome. Toulouse. Utrecht. 


1090. 


Toulouse. 


1080. 


Rome. 


1091. 


Leon, in Spain. 


■ — 


Several in France and Ger- 


1092. 


Soissons. Etampes. Sza- 




many. 




bolchs. 



Y 8 



326 



FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII. 



(Fifth 



1093 


Rheims. 


1125. 


— 


** Canterbury. 




1094. 


Constance. 


1127. 


— 


Autun (against Philip's 






marriage). 


1128. 


— 


Rheims (in favour of Phi- 


1129. 




lip's marriage). 


1131. 


— 


* Rockingham Castle. 


1134. 


1095. 


Placentia. Clermont. * En- 






gland. 


1136. 


1096. 


Rouen. Tours. 


1138. 


— 


Nimes. 


1139. 


1097. 


* Ireland. 




1098. 


Rome. Bari. 




1099. 


Rome (on discipline). 


— 


1100. 


* Lambeth. Poitiers. 


1140. 


1102. 


Rome. 


— 


1103. 


* London. Milan. 




1104. 


Rome. Troyes. Paris. 


1141. 


1105. 


Rome. Quedlinburg. 






Rheims. Florence. 


1142. 


1106. 


Poitiers. 


1143. 


1107. 


Troyes. * London. 




1108. 


* London (on discipline). 


— 


— 


Benevento. 




1110. 


Rome. Clermont. Tou- 






louse. 


1144. 


1111. 


Rome (Lateran). 




1112. 


Rome (Lateran). 


— 


— 


Vienne. 


1145. 


— 


Jerusalem. 


1146. 


1114. 


* Windsor. 

Leon. Compostello (on 


1147. 




discipline). 


1148. 


1115. 


Soissons. Rheims. Co- 






logne. 


1151. 


1116. 


Rome (Lateran). 


1152. 


— 


* Salisbury. Dijon. 


1153. 


1117. 


Milan. Benevento. 


1154. 


1118. 


Capua. Rouen. Vienne. 


1157. 


1119. 


Cologne. Toulouse. 






Rheims. 


1159. 


1122. 


Soissons. Worms. 


1160. 


1123. 


Lateran I. — The Ninth 


1161. 




General. (On discipline.) 


1162. 


3124. 


Several in France. 


1163. 



, * Westminster (on disci- 
pline). 

* Westminster (reforma- 
tion of manners). 

Troyes. Rouen. 

* London. 
Rheims. 
Pisa (under Innocent ; 

against Anacletus). 

* London. * Northampton. 

* London (on discipline). 
Lateran II. — The 

Tenth General. (Re- 
union of the Church.) j 

* Winchester. 
Constantinople. 
Sens (against the opinions 

of Abelard). 

* Winchester. Antioch. 
* Westminster. 

* London. 
Constantinople (Bogomili 

condemned). 

Jerusalem (concerning the 
tenets of the Arme- 
nians). 

Constantinople (against 
Niphon). 

Rome. 

Bourges (Crusade). 

Vezelai (Crusade). 

Constantinople. Paris. 

Treves. 

Rheims. Bamberg. (Mat- 
ters of faith). 

* London (on discipline). 

* Ireland. 
Worms. Constance. 

* London. 
Kiev. Constantinople. 

Rheims. 
Mentz. 

Pavia. Anagni. * Oxford. 
Toulouse. Lodi. Beauvais. 

* Westminster. 
Tours (on discipline). 



Period.) to the beginning of the reformation. 327 



1164. 

1165. 
1166. 



1169. 
1170. 
1171. 
1172. 
1173. 
1175. 
1176. 
1177. 



1179. 



1180. 
1182. 
1184. 

1185. 
1186. 

1188. 

1189. 
1190. 

1193. 
1195. 
1196. 
1197. 

1199. 
1200. 
1201. 
1205. 
1206. 
1209. 
1210. 
1211. 



* Clarendon. Rheims. 

* Northampton. 
Aix-la-Chapelle. 
Constantinople (doctrine 

and discipline). 

* London. 
Kiev. 
Constantinople. 

* Armagh. * Cashel. 
Avranches. 

* Westminster. 

* London (on discipline). 

* Northampton. * London. 

* Northampton. 
Conference at Tarsus (for 

re-union of the Arme- 
nians and Greeks). 

Lateran III. — The Ele- 
venth General. (On 
discipline). 

Tarragona. 

Limoges (on discipline). 

Verona (against heretics, 
&c). 

Paris. * London. 

* Ireland (reformation of 

the clergy). 

Several councils for the 
promotion of Crusades. 

Rouen (on discipline. 

Narbonne (Waldenses con- 
demned). 

* Canterbury. 

* York. 
Paris. 

Lanciski,in Poland (against 
marriage of the clergy). 
Dijon. 

Vienne. * London. 
Soissons. * Perth. 
Aries. 

* Lambeth (on discipline). 
Avignon (on discipline). 
Paris. Rome. 
Narbonne. Aries. 



1212. 
1213. 
1215. 



1216. 
1222. 



1223. 
1224. 
1225. 

1226. 
1226. 

1227. 

1228. 
1229. 

1230. 
1231. 
1232. 
1233. 



1234. 
1235. 

1236 
1237. 
1238. 
1239. 

1241. 
1242. 
1244. 
1245. 



1246. 

1247. 
1248. 



* Northampton. Paris. 

* St. Alban's. 
Lateran IV. — The 

Twelfth General. 
(Doctrine and discipline). 

* Bristol. 

* Oxford 

Sleswic (celibacy of clergy). 
Constantinople. 
Rouen. Paris. 
Montpellier. 

Paris. Melun. Bourges. 
Mentz. 

* Westminster. Paris. 
Cremona. 

* Scotland (on discipline). 
Treves. Narbonne. Rome. 
Rome. 

Paris. Lerida. * West- 
minster. Toulouse. 

Tarragona. 

Rouen. Castle Gontier. 

Nicaea. * London. 

Several in France. 

Mentz (against Stedin- 
gians). 

Beziers. Aries. 

Narbonne. Rheims. Com- 
piegne. Senlis. 

Tours (in favour of Jews). 

Lerida. * London. 

Cognac. * London. Treves. 

Tarragona. Tours. St. 
Quintin. Sens. 

* Oxford. 

Tarragona. 

Tarragona. * London. 

Lyons. — The Thir- 
teenth General. (Em- 
peror Frederic deposed.) 

Beziers. Fritzlar. Lerida. 

* London. 
Tarragona. 
Tarragona. 

Valence. 



Paris. Breslau. 



y 4 



328 



FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII. 



(Fifth 



1253. 


Tarragona. Ravenna. 


1286. 


1254. 


Castle Gontier. 




1255. 


* London. Albi. Bor- 
deaux. 


1287. 


1256. 


Paris. Sens. 


1291. 


1257. 


* London. 




1258. 


* Merton. 


1292. 


1259. 


Mentz (on discipline). 




1260. 


Cognac (on discipline). 




1260. 


Cologne. 


1294. 


1261. 


Aries. Cologne. Paris. 


1297. 




* London. Mentz. 


1299. 


1262. 


* Ireland. Cognac. 


1300. 


1263. 


Paris. 


1301. 


1264. 


Nantes. Paris. Bologna. 


— 


1265. 


(or 1266.) * Northampton. 


1302. 


1266. 


Bremen. 


1303. 


1267. 


Vienna. 


1305. 


1268. 


Breslau. * London. Castle 
Gontier. 


1307. 


1269. 


Sens (on discipline). 




1270. 


Compiegne (Church pro- 
perty). 
Avignon. 


1309- 


1274. 


Lyons. — The Four- 
teenth General. 




1275. 


Aries (on discipline). 
Constantinople. 




1276. 


Bourges. 


1311. 


1277. 


Constantinople (concerning 
the union of the Greek 
and Roman Churches). 




1279. 


Beziers. Avignon. (Ec- 


1313. 




clesiastical privileges 


1314. 




and property.) 




— 


* Reading. 


1315. 


1280. 


Bourges. Constantinople. 




1281. 


Cologne. Saltzburg. Lam- 


1316. 


***** 


beth. 


1317. 


1281. 


Paris. 




1282. 


* London. Tarragona. 


1318. 




Avignon. Tours. Aqui- 


— 




leia. 


1320. 


1283. 


Constantinople. 




1285. 


Constantinople. 


1321. 



* London. Ravenna. Ma- 
con. Bourges. 

* Exeter. Milan. Saltz- 
burg. 

Saltzburg. Milan. * Lon- 
don. 
Tarragona. Bremen. 

* Chichester. Aschaf- 
fenburg. 

Saumur. Tarragona. 

* London. Constantinople. 
Rouen (on discipline). 

* Canterbury. * Merton. 

Melun (on discipline). 

Rheims. 

Paris. Rheims. Rome. 

Paris. Nogaro. Cambray. 

Tarragona. * London. 

Aquileia. Cologne. Tar- 
ragona. Sisa, in Arme- 
nia Minor. 

-1311. Presburg. Mentz. 
Cologne (against con- 
cubinage of the clergy). 
Ravenna. Paris. Mentz. 

* London. Salamanca 
(concerning the Tem- 
plars). 

Vienne. — The Fifteenth 
General. (On doctrine 
and discipline; order of 
Templars suppressed.) 

Magdeburg. 

Paris. Ravenna (on dis- 
cipline.) 

Saumur. Nogaro (on dis- 
cipline). 

Adan, in Armenia. 

Tarragona. Ravenna (on 
discipline). 

Senlis (Church property). 

Saragossa. 

Sens. Halle 
pline). 

* London. 



o 



disci- 



Period.) to the beginning of the reformation. 



329 



1322. 


Valladolid. Magdeburg. 


1398. Paris. 




Cologne. 


1401. * London (against Wick- 


1324. 


Paris. Toledo. 


liffites). 


1326. 


Avignon. Senlis. Marciac. 


1404. Paris. 


1329. 


* London. Compiegne. 


1406. Hamburg. 




Paris. 


— Paris. 


1330. 


* Lambeth. Kherna, in 


1408. Rheims. * London. Paris. 




Armenia. 


Perpignan. 


1335. 


Salamanca. Pre (on dis- 


1409. Frankfort. * Oxford. Flo- 




cipline). 


rence. Pisa. Aquileia. 


1336. 


Bourges. Castle Gontier. 


1410. Salamanca. 


1337. 


Avignon. Treves. 


1412, 1413. Rome. 


1339. 


Toledo. 


1413. * London. 


1340. 


Nicosia, in Cyprus. 


1414 until 1418. Constance 


1341. 


Constantinople. * Canter- 


The Seventeenth 




bury. 


General. 


1342. 


Saumur. * London. 


1421. Prague. 


1343. 


* London. 


1423. Pavia, and Sienna. Treves. 


1344. 


Magdeburg. Noyon. 


1429. Riga. Paris. Tortosa. 


1345. 


Armenia. Constantinople. 


1430. Aschaffenburg. 


1347. 


Paris. Toledo. Constanti- 


1431. Nantes. 




nople. 


1431. Council of Basle meets. — 


1350. 


Padua. 


The Eighteenth Ge- 


1351. 


* Dublin. Beziers. 


neral. (Re-union of 


1355. 


Prague. Toledo. 


the Greek and Roman 


1356. 


* London. 


Churches ; ecclesiastical 


1366. 


Angers, 


reformation.) 


1367. 


* York. 


1438. Ferrara. 


1368. 


Upsala. Lavaur. 


1439. Florence. 


1370. 


Magdeburg. 


— Mentz. 


1374. 


Narbonne. 


1440. Bourges. 


1379. 


Salamanca. 


1441. Mentz. 


1382. 


* London. * Oxford 


1445. Rouen. 




(against the Wickliffites, 


1448. Angers. 




or Lollards). 


1449. Lausanne. 


1383. 


Cambray. 


1450. Constantinople. 


1386. 


Saltzburg (on discipline). 


1452. Cologne. Magdeburg. 


1387. 


Mentz. 


1453. * Cashel. 


1388. 


Valentia. Palermo, 


1454. * Canterbury. 


1390. 


Cologne. 


1455 Aschaffenburg. Soissons. 


1391. 


* London. 


1457. Avignon. 


1392. 


Prague. 


1473. Madrid. Toledo. 


1395. 


Paris. 


1485. Sens. 


1397. 


* London (against Wick- 


1486. * London. 




liffites). 


1490. Saltzburg. 



330 FROM THE ACCESSION OF GREGORY VII. ETC. (Period V.) 

1492. Moscow. the pope), transferred 

1494. Nitra, in Hungary. to Milan, thence to 

1503. Moscow. Lyons. 

1510. Orleans. Tours. 1512. Lateran (against the Coun- 

1511. Pisa (by the cardinals and cilofPisa). 

king of France against 



END OF THE FIFTH PERIOD. 



PERIOD VI. 

ERA OF THE REFORMATION. 

1517—1555. 



1517 (Maximilian I. Emperor of Germany. 

* Henry VIII. King of England. 
Francis I. King of France. 
Charles I. King of Spain.) 

March 16. — The Lateran Council dissolved in its twelfth 
session, having condemned the principles maintained by 
the Councils of Constance and Basle, and established afresh 
the absolute sovereignty of the pope. But this triumph 
of the Papacy was more apparent than real. 

Shameless sale of Indulgences in Germany by Tetzel, a 
Dominican, under Albert, Elector of Mentz and Arch- 
bishop of Magdeburg. Luther preaches and protests 
against the evil effects of this traffic, which had interfered 
with the exercise of his ministry. 

October SI. — Luther publishes ninety-five TJieses, against 
abuses connected with the doctrine of Indulgences, and 
challenges disputants. 

No direct opposition to Rome ; but fundamental prin- 
ciples asserted concerning repentance, pardon, and sancti- 
fication, which form the basis of Christian doctrine as 
distinguished from the prevalent superstition. 



Erasmus publishes his Paraphrase on the Epistle to the 
Romans. 



332 ERA OF THE REFORMATION. (Sixth 

1518 Another translation of the Scriptures into German, from 
the Vulgate. 

Melanchthon, Professor of Greek at Wittemberg. 



Luther addresses a letter to the pope ; is summoned to 
appear before Cardinal Cajeta.n, pope's legate, at Augsburg. 
Cajetan, after several conferences, persists in demanding 
nothing less than a recantation: Luther refuses, and 
appeals a papa male informato ad papam melius infor- 
mandum. 

Nov. 9. — A bull, confirming the doctrine of Indulgences, 
and forbidding all persons to dispute against it, under 
penalty of excommunication. 



1519 Death of the emperor Maximilian. Frederic, Elector 
of Saxony, Regent of the empire. Charles I. King of 
Spain, elected, under the title of 
Charles V. Emperor of Germany (crowned in 1520). 



January. — Conference of Luther ivith Miltitz. 

March 3. — Luther's explanatory letter to the pope, ac- 
knowledging his authority, and professing respect for the 
Romish Church, but absolutely maintaining the doctrine 
of justification by grace through faith, and the absence 
of all merit in good works. 

June 27. — Disputation at Leipsic, 
between Eck on the one side, and Carlstadt and Luther 
on the other. Luther denies divine right of the pope's su- 
premacy. From this time we may date his systematic and 
growing opposition to the Papacy. 

Melanchthon present at this disputation ; an impartial 
account of which he transmits to his friend CEcolampadius, 
at Basle. Afterwards Melanchthon begins to take part in 
the controversy. 

Luther publishes his Commentary on the Epistle to the 
Galatians. 

Ulrich Zwingle, at Zurich, after a calm and thorough 
study of Scripture, shocked at the sale of Indulgences by 



Period.) era of the reformation. 333 

Bernardin Samson, appears in the character of a Reformer, 
denouncing ecclesiastical abuses, and teaching a purer 
doctrine than that which prevailed in the dominant 
church. The Council of Zurich commands all preachers 
to teach the pure word of God, according to Holy Scrip- 
ture, and to refrain from human additions. 



1520 Increasing jealousy between Spain and France. 

Leo attaches himself to the cause of the Emperor. 



June. — Luther publishes an address to the Emperor and 
the Christian Nobility of the German nation. 

Bull against Luther and his writings first pub- 
lished in August by Eck. 

August. — Luther's treatise, " On the Babylonian Captivity 
of the Church." In this book, Luther not only exposed 
the outward abuses of the Church, the system of the 
Papacy, Monachism, &c, but also denounced the more 
deeply-seated errors of doctrine, especially Transubstantia- 
tion, and other errors connected with the sacraments. 

Luther now denounces the Papacy as the King- 
dom of Babylon, and Antichrist. 

October. — Conference of Miltitz with Luther, in hope 
of effecting a reconciliation. Luther's treatise on Christ- 
ian Liberty, and Letter to the Pope. 

December. — Frederick, Elector of Saxony, consults 
Erasmus respecting the doctrine and proceedings of 
Luther. Erasmus applauds Luther's good intentions, but 
laments his want of moderation. "Lutherus," said he, 
" peccat in duobus ; nempe quod tetigit coronam ponti- 
ficis, et ventres monachorum." 

Some Lutheran preachers in Poland. 



Complutensian Bible of Cardinal Ximenes published. 



End of the First Period in the History of 
the German Reformation. 



334 ERA OF THE REFORMATION. (Sixth 

1521 Soliman II. the Turkish Sultan, captures Belgrade. 
Francis Sforza, Duke of Milan. 
First war between Charles V. and Francis I. 
The pope in alliance with the emperor. 



April. — Luther, before the Diet of Worms, re- 
fuses to retract his doctrine, until convinced of error by 
proofs from Scripture. 

May. — Edict of Worms, 
commanding the apprehension of Luther, and the de- 
struction of his writings. 

Luther conveyed to Wartburg, under the protection 
of Frederick. Here he begins his Translation of the 
Bible into German; completing that of the New Testa- 
ment : — a most important work for the interests of 
religion, and the promotion of real Reformation. Here, 
also, he matures his opinions concerning the nature and 
constitution of the Church. 

Melanchthon publishes his Loci Communes, a system- 
atic exposition of Luther's doctrine. 

* Henry VIII. of England, publishes a Defence of the 
doctrine of Seven Sacraments, against Luther. In conse- 
quence of this, Leo declares the king " Defender of the 
Faith." 

George, Duke of Saxony, persecutes the followers of 
Luther. 

Erasmus endeavours to pursue a middle course between 
the Romanists and the friends of Luther. Both parties 
dissatisfied with him. The Romanists accuse him of bein£ 
a secret favourer of the opposition made to the Papacy ; 
while the Reformers charge him with lukewarmness. 
Hutten writes against him ; Erasmus replies. 

The principles of Reformation find entrance into 
Denmark ; also into France, where they are condemned 
by the Sorbonne ; and into Transylvania. 

Reformation advances in Switzerland. 

Ignatius Loyola wounded in battle. During the pro- 
gress of his cure, he imbibes the principles of religious 
asceticism. 



Period.) era of the reformation*. 335 

1521 Erasmus settles at Basle. 

University of Geneva founded. 



Rhodes captured by the Turks. 
Roman Catholic Missions to the East Indies, 



The pope sends Cheregati as his nuncio to the Diet of 
Nuremberg; demands the fulfilment of the Edict of 
Worms, and the assistance of the German princes against 
Luther and his friends. Confesses the existence of abuses 
and corrupt morals in the Church and court of Rome ; 
and promises to use his utmost efforts for the correction of 
these disorders. The diet demands the assembling of a 
general council for the discussion of religious differences, 
and transmits to Rome a list of grievances. 

Disorders at Wittemberg. — Hasty changes in the manner 
of celebrating divine worship, &c. promoted by Carlstadt. 
Fanatics of Zwickaw. Luther writes, and then returns 
to Wittemberg. By his sermons and influence he restores 
moderation and peace. 

September. — Luther's New Testament published at Wit- 
temberg. 

Luther writes against Henry VIII. of England. 



*j* John Reuchlin (Capnio). A great promoter of 
learning, especially of the study of Hebrew. 



Knights of St. John obliged to surrender Rhodes to 
Soliman. 

Gustavus Vasa, King of Sweden. 

Charles, occupied in the pursuits of ambition, and en- 
gaged in war with France and the Turks, pays little 
regard to the affairs of religion in his empire, except so 
far as they affect his political interests. 

Popular misconceptions of Luther's doctrines respecting 
Christian liberty. Munzer, at the head of a party of 
fanatics, inveighs against Luther, and excites the popu- 
lace to violence. Insurrection of the Peasants in Germany 
begins. Munzer at Mulhausen. 



336 ERA OF THE REFORMATION. (Sixth 

1523 Public disputation at Zurich, between Zvvingle and the 
Romanists (Faber of Constance, and others). The coun- 
cil supports Zwingle in preaching the pure word of God, 
and forbids preachers to advance any thing which may 
not be proved from Scripture. 

Zwingle's "Short and Christian Introduction to the 
Doctrine of the Gospel." 

In Sweden, Gustavus Vasa favours the doctrines of 
Reformation ; and in Denmark they are supported by 
Frederick. 

Reformation had now made progress in the Nether- 
lands, 

Erasmus completes his Paraphrase of the New Testament. 
A Dutch translation of the Bible. 



Ignatius Loyola undertakes a pilgrimage to Palestine. 



152 h Clement engages in the interests of France. 



Reformation makes great progress in Switzerland. Many 
superstitious ceremonies and customs abolished. CEcolam- 
padius at Basle. William Farel. Several cantons oppose 
the Reformation. 

Sweden and Denmark profess the reformed faith. The 
doctrines of Luther gain ground in Prussia, and are intro- 
duced into Scotland. 

Luther abandons the monastic life. His monastery is 
now deserted, and delivered into the hands of the elector. 

Diet of Nuremberg, attended by Cardinal Campeggio as 
pope's legate, promises to carry into effect the Edict of 
Worms as far as possible, but persists in demanding a 
general council. 

Campeggio endeavours to form a confederacy of Ger- 
man princes in favour of the pope and Church of Rome. 
At Ratisbon, he brings about a league between several 
princes and bishops^ who bind themselves to support each 
other in efforts to uphold the Romish doctrines and cere- 
monies, and in checking the progress of Luther's opi- 
nions. First League of German princes. 



Period,) era of the reformation. 337 

Beginning of the Sacramental Controversy. Luther 
engages in controversy with Carlstadt : Luther maintain- 
ing the real corporeal presence of Christ in, with, and 
under, the elements of the Lord's supper (as fire is in 
heated iron), Consubstantiation ; Carlstadt maintaining that 
the Lord's supper is only a commemoration of our 
Saviour's sacrifice. 

Carlstadt removes to Strasburg. Wolfgang Fabricius 
Capito and Martin Bucer, two preachers of that place, 
adopt his sentiments. 



Erasmus refutes the allegations of those who had 
accused him of maintaining a secret understanding with 
Luther, by publishing a treatise entitled, Diatribe de 
Liber o Arbitrio (of Semipelagian tendency), in opposition 
to the reformer's sentiments (which were in accordance 
with the Augustinian scheme of predestination). 



Melanehthon, Professor of Theology at Wittemburg. 
f John Staupitz. 
First Danish translation of the New Testament. 
The study of Scripture and Greek literature begin to 
flourish in England. 

Loyola studies at Barcelona, He reads assiduously 
Thomas a Kempis's Imitation of Christ. 

Order of Theatines founded (Clerici Regulares ; against 
heresy). 

Battle of Pavia. Francis in the power of Charles. 
The Pope obliged to take part with Charles. 
Frederic the Wise, Elector of Saxony, died this year. 
He was succeeded by John, who gave the Reformation 
decided support. 

A manifesto published, containing the Claims of the Pea- 
sants. Luther's exhortation to peace. The insurrection 
becomes general. Luther writes Against the Plundering 
and Murderous Peasants. Defeat of the insurgents at 
Frankenhausen. Munzer beheaded. End of the revolt. 

z 



838 ERA OF THE REFORMATION. (Sixth 

15Q5 At Zurich, the celebration of the Lords supper is en- 
tirely substituted for the pretended sacrifice of the mass. 
Use of pictures and images in churches discontinued. 
Even organs and bells silenced. Attempt to separate 
spiritual religion, as far as possible, from every thing 
outward, visible, and sensible. 

Zwingle teaches that the Lord's supper is a symbol- 
ical commemoration of the one meritorious sacrifice of 
Christ, agreeing nearly with Carlstadt and Luther's 
other opponents. John Bugenhagen (Pomeranus), of 
Wittemberg, defends Luther's doctrine in reply. QEco- 
lampadius, at Basle, advocates similar sentiments. The 
controversy continues. 

The title of Evangelical first assumed by the Land- 
grave of Hesse. 

Luther marries Catharine de Bora. 

Many Lutherans condemned as heretics, and burnt, in 
various parts of Germany, about this time. Persecution 
carried on, especially under the auspices of the archduke 
of Austria, and the dukes of Saxony and Brunswick. 



Luther's treatise, De Servo Arbitrio, in answer to 
Erasmus. Zwingle, Commentarius De Vera et Falsa Re- 
ligione. Eck, Enchiridion Locorum Communium adversus 
Lutherum. 

Order of Capuchins, a kind of Franciscans, or Minorites, 
takes its rise. 

1526 The pope combines with France, Venice, and Milan, 
against the emperor (Holy League). 



At Torgau, Philip, Landgrave of Hesse, and John, 
Elector of Saxony, agree to support each other in the 
preservation of their rights, and in resisting any attack 
upon the free exercise of reformed religion in their 
dominions. In the course of the year, several other 
princes joined their league at Magdeburg. 

October. — Conference between Romanists and Reformers 
at Homburg. 



Period.) era of the reformation. 339 

Reformation established in Prussia. 



Luther's German Liturgy and Order of Divine Worship. 

Loyola repairs to the University of Complutum. His 
zeal in religious exercises, and in giving instruction, ex- 
cites the jealousy of the Inquisition, and exposes him to 
persecution. 

* Tyndal's English Translation of the New Testament, 
(t Pomponazzi, an Aristotelian philosopher.) 

Second War between Charles V. and Francis I. 
Rome plundered, and the pope taken prisoner by the 
imperial forces. The pope purchases his liberty. 

January. — Another conference at M arpurg. 

The landgrave of Hesse and elector of Saxony take 
arms, upon report of a league between Roman Catholic 
princes for the extirpation of the reformed religion. 
Luther and Melanchthon refuse to sanction these proceed- 
ings. Existence of the league denied ; and the forces 
disbanded. This circumstance gave to the work of Reform- 
ation too much of a political and aggressive character. 

Many writings of the Reformers translated and cir- 
culated in Italy. Their doctrines met with no inconsider- 
able acceptance. 

# Henry VIII. of England desires to obtain a divorce 
from his queen Catharine. Proposals for divorce made 
to the court of Rome during the detention of Clement. 

Alliance of the seven Roman Catholic cantons of Switz- 
erland. 

The Vatican Library in ruins. University of Mar- 
purg founded. 

t Jerome Emser, R. C. 

N.B. From this date, writers of the several different 
churches will usually be distinguished by capital letters 
affixed to their names in the obituary, thus, — L. denotes 
Lutheran; R. Reformed; R. C. Roman Catholic; but 
members of our own church will be distinguished by the 
asterisk, which has been used throughout the work as de- 
noting reference to British history. 

z 2 



3-*0 ERA OF THE REFORMATION. (Sixth 



15€8 



1529 



Visitation of the Churches in Saxony. Melanchthon's 
" Instructions/' or " Visitation Articles." 

Reformation established in many towns and provinces 
of Germany and Switzerland (Haller, at Berne; Viret, 
at Lausanne; Farel, in various parts of Switzerland). 

* Reformation in Scotland begins. Martyrdom of 
Patrick Hamilton, burnt at St. Andrew's. 

Sacramental Controversy. Luther's doctrine of the eu- 
charist condemned by an assembly of Swiss divines at 
Berne. 

Jerome Aurelian, a Venetian, founds the order of 
Somaschi, a kind of regular clergy. 

Loyola repairs to Paris, to study theology. 
Order of Capuchins confirmed by Pope Clement VIII. 

The emperor and the elector of Saxony give their sanc- 
tion to violent measures against the Anabaptists of 
Germany. 

Soliman II. invades Hungary, and advances to Vienna. 
Peace of Cambray, between Charles V. and Francis I. 
Clement reconciled to the emperor, who promises to 
exert himself for suppression of heresy. 

Roman Catholic Missions to Japan. 

Hie Diet of Spires decrees that the Edict of Worms 
should be strictly enforced in all countries where it had 
been already received, but that where the evangelical 
doctrines had been adopted, so that they could not be ex- 
tirpated without commotion, it should be sufficient to pro- 
hibit further changes until a general council should be 
held. The diet also determines to suppress the doctrines 
of Sacramentarians and Anabaptists, to protect the cele- 
bration of mass where desired, and to impose upon 
preachers the condition that they should preach the Gospel 
only in the sense approved by the Church. The evan- 
gelical princes sent (April 19.) a Protest against this 
Decision, to which they added (April 25.) an Appeal 
to the emperor, to a general or national council, and to 
every impartial Christian judge. 



Period,) era of the reformation. 341 

15^9 Origin of the Name Protestants. 

The elector of Hesse urges violent measures ; Luther 
and others remonstrate. 

The emperor rejects the Protest and Appeal. 
Meeting at Smalcald, for the purpose of forming a 
Protestant confederacy ; without effect. 

June 29. — The emperor, in a treaty with the pope, un- 
dertakes " to bring back the heretics in Germany to their 
obedience to the Roman See." 

October 1, 2, 3. — Conference at Marpurg, between the 
Saxon and Swiss divines. Differences respecting the 
doctrines of the eucharist continue, but with the under- 
standing that such differences shall not be a bar to union 
in the common cause of the Gospel. 

Reformation completed at Basle (CEcolampadius) . 
Luther's Catechisms. 

* Trial concerning Henry's divorce before Campeggio, 
pope's legate in England. Cause transferred to Rome. 
Fall of Cardinal Wolsey. 

* Cardinal Beaton, Archbishop of St. Andrew's, perse- 
cutes the Reformers in Scotland. Violent persecutions 
in the Low Countries and France. 



Hetzer, L., who denied the divinity of Christ, and 
attached himself to the Anabaptists, beheaded at Constance 
for polygamy and adultery. 

Various fanatical sects in the Low Countries. Mel- 
chior Hofmann, founder of a sect of Anabaptists. 



1530 Charles V. crowned by the Pope at Bologna. Last in- 
stance of the coronation of a German emperor by the 
pope. 

The Knights of St, John receive a grant of Malta from 
the emperor. 

Articles of Torgau (a statement of the leading articles 
of Christian faith presented by Luther and his friends to 
the elector of Saxony at Torgau, before the assembling of 
the diet). 

z 3 



342 ERA OF THE REFORMATION. (Sixth 

1530 Diet of Augsburg. — June 25. Protestants present and 
read a confession or summary of faith, drawn up by Me- 
lanchthon, on the basis of the articles of Torgau, the ce- 
lebrated CONFESSION OF AUGSBURG. August 13. 
Romanists present a Confutation of the Confession, with 
which the emperor declares himself satisfied, and demands 
the assent and acquiescence of the Protestant members of 
the diet, which they refuse. August. Conferences between 
the two parties; without effect. Protestants finally ap- 
peal to the decision of a free general council. Melanchthon 
publishes a Defence of the Apology. 

Tetrapolitan Confession, presented by the cities of 
Strasburg, Constance, Memmingen, and Landau. 

Sept. 22. — A decree of the diet allows Protestants time 
(until the 15th of April following) to deliberate concern- 
ing conformity to the Church ; requiring them, in the 
interval, to make no further innovations, and to aid in 
suppressing the errors of the Zwinglians and Anabaptists, 
with a promise on the part of the emperor to solicit the 
pope to convene a general council within six months. 

Nov. 19.- — Final decree, censuring the changes which had 
been partially introduced ; giving new force to the Edict 
of Worms ; requiring all who had withdrawn allegiance 
from the See of Rome to acknowledge its authority, on 
pain of incurring the displeasure and vengeance of the 
emperor. Indefinite promise of a general council re- 
peated. 

* An appeal had been made from the authority of the 
pope to the opinions of the universities, relating to 
Henry's divorce, probably at the suggestion of Cranmer. 
Their decisions affirm the illegality of the marriage. The 
clergy, in convocation, acknowledge Henry as Supreme 
Head of the English Church. 

Conferences between Roman Catholics and Reformers 
in Denmark. 



Order of Barnabites founded (confirmed in 1532; 
denominated, since 1535, Clerici Regulares S. Pauli). 



Period.) era of the reformation. 343 

1530 



1531 



1532 



Luther's Admonition to the Ecclesiastics. Admonition 
to the Germans. 



Protestant League of Smalcald. 
Evangelical doctrines propagated in Hungary. 
Religious war in Switzerland. Peace; on condition 
that each canton shall be independent of the others in 
matters of religion. 

Bullinger, Zwingle's successor, completes the establish- 
ment of a reformed discipline and worship in Zurich. 



Michael Serve tus publishes his treatise De Trinitatis 
Erroribus. 

°|* Zwingle and (Ecolampadius* 



John Frederic, Elector of Saxony ; zealous in the cause 
of the Reformation. 

The emperor and states of Germany continue their 
solicitations to the pope for the assembling of a general 
council. 

Pacification of Nuremberg ; a treaty between the em- 
peror and Protestants. 

Sale of Indulgences at Geneva. William Farel and 
Antony Saunier banished from the city for preaching 
evangelical doctrines. 

John Calvin, a native of Noyon in Picardy, begins to 
distinguish himself in Paris. 



John Campanus, Antitrinitarian. 



University of Compostella founded. 



The changes effected by Protestants in the celebration 
of divine worship, during this century, may be thus de- 
scribed, in general : — 

1. The abolition of all rites and ceremonies founded 
upon ecclesiastical errors and fables, 

z 4 



344 ERA OF THE REFORMATION. {Sixth 

2. The restoration of Scriptural practices and institu- 
tions which had fallen into disuse. 

3. The granting of liberty, with regard to things inno- 
cent or indifferent, either to retain or discontinue them. 
(The Lutheran and English Churches retained many 
customs, which were abolished by the Swiss and others.) 

These changes affected chiefly the following particu- 
lars : — times and places of worship ; common prayer ; 
psalmody; preaching and catechising; administration of 
the sacraments. 

The few differences which remained among Protestants 
related, principally, to the use of exorcism at baptism; 
some eucharistic questions; the retaining of images in 
churches ; church music. 



1533 The Pope espouses the cause of Francis. 

* Cranmer made Archbishop of Canterbury. The 
king's divorce formally declared. John Forsyth, martyr. 
* Violent persecution of Reformers in Scotland. 
In Denmark, the Roman Catholic party gains ascend- 
ancy for a short time. 

Reformation makes progress in Transylvania. 



Luther's Treatise on Private Masses. Sermons on 
the Apostles' Creed, &c. Commentaries and Lectures on 
various parts of Scripture. 



1534 Reformation in Wurtemburg, Pomerania, Mecklen- 
burg, and Augsburg. 

Persecution of Reformers in France. 

# The English Parliament abrogates the papal su- 
premacy in England, and recognises that of the king. 
Final rupture of Henry and England with Rome. Power 
of the bishops' courts abridged. Oath of supremacy 
imposed. Sir Thomas More, and Fisher, Bishop of Ro- 
chester, refusing to take the oath, are sent to the Tower. 

Publication of a complete edition of Luther's Translation 
of the Bible, in three volumes, folio. 



Period.) era of the reformation. 345 

1534* Ignatius Loyola forms a religious society in Paris, for 
the maintenance of the Roman Catholic faith. 



Fanatical Anabaptists at Munster, under Matthias, 
Bockhold, and Knipperdolling. Insurrection; quelled. 



t Cardinal Cajetan (Thomas de Vio). 



1535 Francis I. of France negotiates with the members of 
the Smalcaldic League. 



The pope refuses to convene a council in Germany. 
The Protestants refuse to attend one if assembled in 
Italy. 

Interview of Vergerio, pope's nuncio, with Luther, at 
Wittemberg. 

Evangelical doctrines propagated in Poland. 
Reformation makes progress in Geneva. 
* Death of More and Fisher. 
Under the supremacy of Henry, many persons are con- 
demned and burnt as heretics, for denying the doctrines 
of purgatory, the corporeal presence, &c. 

* Visitation of English Monasteries. 
* Cromwell, first Vicar General, afterwards Lord Vice- 
gerent. 

Melanchthon, in a new edition of his Loci Com- 
munes, evinces a disposition to depart from the August- 
inian doctrines concerning predestination, grace, and 
free-will. 



Luther's Second Commentary on the Galalians. 
Calvin's Institutio Religionis Christiana; ', first edition. 
Robert Olivetan translates the Bible into French, for 
the use of Protestants in that country. 



* Coverdale's English Bible. 



1536 Third War between Charles V. and Francis I. 



346 ERA OF THE REFORMATION. (Sixth 

1536 Publication of the bull In Ccend Domini, in support of 
papal authority. 

League ofSmalcald renewed for ten years more. 
Concord of Wittemberg between the German and Swiss 
divines. (Accepted by Swiss Protestants, generally, in 
1538.) 

First Helvetic Confession. 
In Denmark, Christian III. prohibits the bishops from 
offering further opposition to the progress of Reformation. 
Viret labours for reformation in Lausanne. Calvin called 
to Geneva. Reformation makes progress in Norway. 
Calvin settles at Geneva. 

* Articles concerning Faith and Ceremonies, agreed 
upon by Convocation and published by royal authority, in 
England. Acts of Parliament directed against papal au- 
thority. 

* Henry, summoned before a general council at Mantua, 
refuses to appear. English clergy now form two parties 
— - one supporting, the other opposing, the work of re- 
formation. 

* About this time, proposals were considered for a league 
between the German Protestants and the king of Eng- 
land. But, the former refusing to enter into a treaty 
against the emperor, the negotiation was fruitless. 



# Use of the Scriptures in English. Cromwell orders every 
parson to cause a Bible in Latin and English to be set up in 
the choir of his church for the perusal of the people. 

# Dissolution of monasteries in England having in- 
comes under 200/. a year. Their revenues bestowed upon 
the king. 

t Erasmus. —Promoter of classical learning, of biblical 
theology, and the study of the Fathers. Some of the most 
important of his works — next to those already mentioned 
— were, his Introduction to True Theology ; Ecclesiastes, 
a treatise on preaching; 'Eyxw^cjov pcoplag; and Col- 
loquies. 

His labours contributed to pave the way for reformation, 



Period.) era of the reformation. 347 

but of themselves would never have been sufficient to 
effect it. Luther said of him, that he could point out 
error, but would not teach the truth. His works are distin- 
guished by philosophy and learning, rather than by simple 
Christianity. He was overcautious, and even timid. 



Christian III. King of Denmark and Norway. 



Assembly of Protestants at Smalcald. Articles ofSmal- 
cald, drawn up by Luther. 

Protestant ecclesiastical constitution of Denmark com- 
pleted. 

# Discontents and rebellion in England, promoted by 
the clergy ; quelled. A new visitation of English monas- 
teries. The Bishop's Book, or Institution of a Christian 
Man, published. 

* In England, many persons deny the doctrine of the 
corporeal presence of Christ in the eucharist. Hence 
called Sacramentaries. 



Order of Ursulines, originated by Angela di Brescia 
(for assistance of the needy, and instruction of females). 

Ignatius Loyola and his friends repair to Rome, where 
they are well received, having already acquired great re- 
putation in the Venetian territory by their attendance on 
the sick in hospitals, — their ascetic habits of life — and 
preaching in the open air. 



Menno Simonis quits the Church of Rome, and joins 
the Anabaptists, 

* Matthew's English Bible (by John Rogers), partly 
from Tyndal and Coverdale. 

f James Le Fevre, R. C. 



The emperor concludes a peace with France for ten 
years. 

Francis of France had made demonstrations in favour 



348 ERA OF THE REFORMATION. (Sixth 



1538 



1539 



of Protestants ; after his peace with the emperor, he begins 
to treat them with coolness. 

Christian III. King of Denmark, and other princes, 
join the League of Smalcald. 



June 10. — Catholic or Holy Alliance ; a league be- 
tween the emperor and the Roman Catholic princes 
against the Protestants, for eleven years, — concluded at 
Nuremberg. Reformation in Nordlingen. 

* The Sacramentaries persecuted in England. 

Lambert, brother of Calvin, obliged to withdraw from 
Geneva; becomes Professor of Divinity at Strasburg. 

Celibacy of the Clergy. — * In England a proclamation 
was issued this year against the marriage of the clergy. 



Henry, the new Duke of Saxony, a member of the 
League of Smalcald. 



Fruitless conferences between Romanists and Protest- 
ants at Frankfort-on-the-Maine and Leipsic. 

Convention of Frankfort, between the emperor and the 
Protestants. 

The Reformation solemnly recognised and adopted in 
Leipsic, at Whitsuntide. The Duke and Elector of Saxony, 
with Luther, Melanchthon, and other divines, present. 
Reformation of Denmark completed. Reformation in 
Brandenburg and Magdeburg. 

Henry, Duke of Saxony, establishes the reformed re- 
ligion in his dominions. Calvin and Peter Martyr in 
Strasburg. 

$• In England, the act of the Six Articles was passed, 
notwithstanding the opposition of Cranmer. Cranmer 
complies, but Latimer and Shaxton resign their sees. 

* Various negotiations between Henry and the German 
Reformers, with a view to a close agreement and co- 
operation, had now failed. 

* Cardinal Beaton, Archbishop of St. Andrew's. 



Period.) era of the reformation. 349 



1539 



(1538 — 1540.) Antinomistian Controversy, of Luther, 
with Agricola of Eisleben, concerning the use of the 
law. 

At Strasburg, Calvin, Farel, and Viret, deliver a con- 
fession of faith, propounding a middle doctrine concerning 
the Lord's supper, between those of the Lutherans and 
the Zwinglians. 



# Final suppression of English monasteries. Act for 
the erection of new bishoprics in England. 

* Licence for printing the Bible granted to Cromwell, 
that all persons may have free use of it. 



Luther's Treatise on Councils ; Expositions of Scrip- 
ture, &c. Hermann, Archbishop of Cologne, anxious to 
promote the Reformation. 

Calvin's Treatise on the Lord's Supper. 

* Great Bible (Cranmer's), i. e. a new edition of 
Matthew's, published under the patronage of Cranmer, 
and with a preface by him. Also, Taverner's Bible. 



1540 France gives the Protestant princes of Germany assur- 
ances of friendship. 



Conference at Spires and Worms ; fruitless. 

Disturbances at Ghent. Fresh persecution of Pro- 
testants in the Low Countries. 

Bernardino Occhino adopts the Protestant faith. 

Landgrave of Hesse marries a second wife during the 
life of the first, against the remonstrances of Luther and 
other reformed divines ; followed by earnest protestations 
from many laymen and ecclesiastics of the reformed 
communion. 

* In England, the fall of Cromwell, and the king's 
marriage with Catherine Howard, assist the papal cause. 
Persecution and death of many Reformers, for opposing 



250 ERA OF THE REFORMATION. (Sixth 

Romish errors ; and of Roman Catholics for denying the 
king's supremacy. Martyrdom of Barnes. 



1540 



1541 



The Society of Jesus formally established by Paul III. 
Loyola appointed first general of the order. The mem- 
bers of this order are divided into four classes : — 1. Pro- 
fessi, who, besides the usual monastic engagements to 
poverty, continence, and obedience, into which all the 
members enter, undertake, moreover, to go on the service 
of the pope, into any country to which he may send 
them. 2. Coadjutores, or presidents of single colleges. 

3. Scholastici (approbati), students in these colleges. 

4. Members admitted into the order without any special 
destination. A preliminary novitiate of one or two years 
is required. The object of the order is the support and 
promotion of the Roman Catholic religion. 



Order of the Brethren of Mercy founded. 



# Bishopric of Westminster erected. 
* Use of the Scriptures in English. A king's proclama- 
tion orders a Bible of the largest size to be provided by 
the curate and parishioners, under a penalty of forty 
shillings a month. In the following year, a Brief was 
published, containing the same instructions. 



Henry Nicholas, of Delft, founder of the Familists. 



University of Lausanne founded. 
(| Francis Guicciardini, historian.) 
Luther's academical disputations against Antinomian 
tenets. Preface to the Account of the Martyrdom of 
Barnes. 

Turkish War. 



The German princes make representations to the king 
of France respecting the persecution of Protestants in 
Germany, but without eifect. 



Period.) era of the reformation. 351 

1541 Maurice, Duke of Saxony, a Protestant, but not a 
member of the League of Smalcald. 

Francis Xavier, and other Jesuits, go from Portugal 
to the East Indies as missionaries. 



Diet of Ratisbon (First Interim, or Interim of Ratis- 
bon ; a plan of union or compromise). The whole matter 
again referred to a future general council, or the next 
German diet. 

About this time, the Reformation takes effect in Halle, 
Ratisbon, Hilderheim, Palatinate of Bavaria, and else- 
where. 

Calvin recalled to Geneva, where he acquires great in- 
fluence. He establishes a presbytery, and a system of 
strict ecclesiastical discipline. 



# Bishoprics of Chester, Gloucester, Oxford, and Peter- 
borough erected. The Bible ordered to be set up in all 
English churches. 

The order of Jesuits makes great progress in Italy, 
Spain, and Portugal. 



Luther's Exposition of the Nineteenth Psalm, and 
some of the Minor Prophets. His Exhortation to Prayer 
against the Turks. 

f Carlstadt, professor and preacher at Basle. 

"f John Ludovicus Vives, a patron of classical literature ; 
Pagninus, a celebrated Hebrew scholar ; and Paracelsus, 
a philosopher. 

Fourth War between Charles V. and Francis I, 



The Prince of Anhalt advocates the principles of the 
Reformation, and supports the Protestant interest. 

# Cardinal Beaton, Regent of Scotland, by means of a 
forged will, attributed to James (died in 1546). 



At the Diet of Spires, the Roman Catholic princes 



352 ERA OF THE REFORMATION. (Sixth 

approve of Trent as the place for a general council, as 
proposed by the pope. The Protestant princes dis- 
approve. 

Advocates of Reformation in Venice and Naples. 
1.542 * In the English Convocation, an attempt is made to 
suppress the translation of the Bible, lately published, on 
the ground of inaccuracy. Cranmer resists the effort ; 
examination of the translation referred to the universities. 



* Bishopric of Bristol erected. (It was the design of the 
king (Henry VIII.) to create many more.) 



t Cardinal Contareni. 



1543 Successes of the Turks in Hungary. 



Maurice, Duke of Saxony, publishes some good eccle- 
siastical regulations. 

Reformation cruelly suppressed at Metz. Reformation 
established in Brunswick Wolfenbuttel. 

* The King's Book, or Necessary Doctrine and Eru- 
dition for any Christian Man. Act of the English Par- 
liament, in favour of a certain degree of toleration, but 
containing restrictions with regard to the reading of 
Scripture. 

Plot for the destruction of Cranmer; detected and 
forgiven. 

Clerici Regulares S. Majoli. 



Luther's correspondence with the Venetians. Hermann, 
Archbishop of Cologne, employs Melanchthon, Pistorius, 
and Bucer, to prepare his formulary of doctrine, cere- 
monies, and discipline (Book of Reformation). 

1 John Eck, Pro-chancellor of the University of Ingol- 
stadt ; celebrated as a scholastic divine, and on account 
of the part which he took in the controversy with Luther. 






Period.) era of the reformation. 353 

15441 Peace of Cressy. 

Charles and Francis agree to exert their united powers 
in order to obtain, a general council. 

Frederic II. Elector Palatine. 



Diet at Spires. — Recess in favour of the Protestants, on 
account of which the pope sends a haughty remonstrance 
to the emperor. At this diet, Hermann, Archbishop of 
Cologne, advocates the cause of Reformation. Reform- 
ation continues to spread through various provinces of 
Germany. 

A council summoned to meet at Trent next year. 
Reformation completed in Sweden. 
* The Litany published in English. 



University of Konigsberg founded. 



Hermann, Archbishop of Cologne, cited to appear 
before the emperor, and before the pope. 

At the Diet of Worms, the Protestants disclaim the 
proposed council. 

Council opened at Trent. 

Reformation of the Lower Palatinate (of the Rhine). 

About this time Vergerio, Bishop of Capo d'lstria, 
renounces the errors of the Church of Rome ; and is 
deprived of his bishopric. (Died 1566.) 

Reformed doctrines generally received in Hungary and 
Transylvania. 

* In England, the cause of Reformation is apparently 
promoted by the advancement of several comparatively 
sound divines to the bench of bishops. 



* English Book of Common Prayer. Tiie King's 
Primer. 



The Waldenses of Provence suffer a cruel persecution, 



A A 



354 ERA OF THE REFORMATION. (Sixth 

1545 Luther's Commentaries on Hosea, Joel, and Genesis. 



1546 



1547 



* In Scotland, the crown, the clergy, and the French 
are now arrayed against the nobles, the Reformers, and 
the English. 

January — March. — Conference between Romish and 
Protestant divines at Ratisbon ; without effect. 
Luther died, February 18. 

First Session of the Council of Trent. — The Protestant 
princes, assembled at Ratisbon, reject its decrees. (Diet of 
Ratisbon, June 5.) 

Hostilities commence between the emperor and Pro- 
testant princes (Smalcaldic War). Maurice, Duke of 
Saxony, invades the Electorate. The elector recovers his 
dominions. 

Hermann, Archbishop of Cologne, excommunicated 
and deposed by the pope, and deprived of his electorate 
by the emperor. Reformation of Cologne suppressed. 

* In England, Anne Askew executed, under the act 
of the Six Articles. 

* Scotch Reformation. Cardinal Beaton assassinated. Re- 
formers commence an open resistance to the government. 



* Use of the Scriptures in English. — Proclamation against 
TyndaPs and Coverdale's Bible. 



Foundation of the sect of Socinians laid by the formation 
of a society of Italian Antitrinitarians. 



| Martin Luther. 



Edition of the New Testament by Robert Stephens. 



T Francis I. of France. Under his successor, Henry II. 
the condition of the French Protestants was not im- 
proved. 

# "j* Henry VIII. of England. Edward VI. succeeds, 
who favours the progress of Reformation in his dominions. 



Period.) era of the reformation. 355 

Maurice, Elector of Saxony. 



March. — The council transferred from Trent to Bo- 
logna; and thus, in fact, suspended. 

April 24. — Battle of Muhlberg. Elector of Saxony 
taken prisoner; and afterwards, by stratagem, Philip, 
Landgrave of Hesse. 

September. — Diet of Augsburg. 

# Execution of the Earl of Surrey, in England. After 
the accession of Edward, a royal visitation for ecclesias- 
tical matters, and injunctions to the clergy. First Book of 
Homilies published. Bonner and Gardiner imprisoned. 

* John Knox, the Reformer, preaches in Scotland. 



* In England, the doctrine of purgatory was now 
growing out of date ; and provision had been made for the 
general instruction of children in the Creed, the Lord's 
Prayer, and the Commandments. 

Laelius Socinus quits Italy, and repairs to Germany and 
Switzerland. 

* Use of the Scriptures in English. The whole Bible in 
English, and the Paraphrase of Erasmus, ordered to be 
set up in every parish church. 



University of Rheims founded. 
t James Sadler, R. C. 
to 1552. * Paraphrase of Erasmus translated into 
English. 



Ferdinand enacts severe laws against the Evangelicals 
in Hungary and Bohemia. Many Bohemian Brethren 
repair to Poland and Prussia. 



At Augsburg, by command of the emperor, a formulary 
is drawn up, containing a rule of faith and worship, to be 

a a 2 



356 ERA OF THE REFORMATION. (Sixth 

observed by all parties until another council should issue 
its decrees (the Augsburg Interim) ; less favourable to 
the Protestants than that of Ratisbon — rejected by most 
Protestants. Succeeded in the same year by the Interim 
of Leipsic, which was accepted by many Protestants, but 
not by all. 

The Leipsic Interim, composed under the auspices of 
the Elector Maurice, makes concessions " in things indif- 
ferent." Rise of the Adiaphoristic Controversy. 
It548 * In England, the power of ecclesiastical courts abridged. 
Gardiner imprisoned. Cranmer's Catechism. 



A brief controversy respecting the Descent of Christ 
into Hell (John iEpinus). 

* In England a great purification of doctrine had now 
been effected. Private masses had been forbidden, and 
communion in both kinds granted to the laity. 

Melanchthon plainly asserts the necessity of the concur- 
rence of man's will with the word and the grace of God, 
in order to conversion and sanctification. 



Philip of Neri lays the foundation of the Society of 
Priests of the Oratory, in Italy ; at first called the Order 
of the Holy Trinity (for the exercise of devotion, com- 
bined with religious study). 

Jesuits. — Permission granted to the Society of Jesus to 
incorporate any number of members, as preachers and con- 
fessors. 

# In England, this year, images were ordered to be re- 
moved, and many superstitious practices were suppressed. 
Communion Service published, partly in English; not 
free from error and superstition ; administration in both 
kinds. 



Universities of Jena, Messina, and Ossuna, founded, 
f George Spalatin, L. 



Period.) era of the reformation. 357 

1548 and 1549. # Two editions of an English translation of 
the Book of Ratramn, or Bertram, on the Lord's supper. 
* Learned foreigners in England assist in the recovery 
and establishment of scriptural truth. Fagius, Tremel- 
lius, and Bucer, at Cambridge. Peter Martyr, and Oc- 
chino, at Oxford. 



The Jesuit missionary, Francis Xavier, goes from the 
East Indies to Japan. Six Jesuits proceed as missionaries 
to Brazil. 



f Matthias Devay, the Hungarian Reformer. 

* Ecclesiasital visitation in England, for the suppres- 
sion of superstitious observances. Joan Bocher burnt for 
heresy ; Cranmer urges Edward to sign the warrant. 

Insurrection in England in favour of Romish religion ; 
quelled. Bonner imprisoned and deprived. 



Rise of the Osiandrian Controversy, 
respecting the doctrine of Justification. (Confusion of 
Justification and Sanctification.) 

Calvin comes to an agreement with Bullinger and other 
divines of Zurich, respecting the doctrine of the Lord's 
supper (Consensus Tigurinus). The doctrines advocated 
by Calvin respecting the Eucharist, Grace, and Predesti- 
nation, prevail generally in Switzerland. 

and 1550. * Disputations in Oxford and Cambridge 
concerning the doctrine of Transubstantiation. 



The Jesuits favourably received in many places. Duke 
William III. of Bavaria invites them into his dominions. 
The whole order declared to be exempt from all juris- 
diction except that of the pope. 

* In England, an act passed authorising the marriage 
of the clergy. Another, enjoining the eating of fish on 
fast days, for the support of the fisheries. 
* English Book of Common Prayer. First Liturgy of 
a a 3 



358 ERA OF THE REFORMATION. (Sixth 

Edward VI. published. (Chiefly from the Salisbury 
Hours and Hermann's Consultation.) 



1550 



Many advocates of the Reformation are found in 
Spain. The emperor adopts new measures for the sup- 
pression of Reformation in the Low Countries. 

* In England, Gardiner is deprived of the See of Win- 
chester. Ridley, Bishop of London and Westminster. 

Several churches of foreign Protestants in London. 

Jesuits. — The Society of Jesus (although a mendicant 
order) receives privilege to possess colleges, with the ne- 
cessary revenues. 

* English Book of Common Prayer, First Ordination 
Service. 



f Paul Fagius, L. 



1551 Fresh war with the Turks in Hungary. 



Consensus Pastorum Genevensium. 

Julius re-opens the Council of Trent; but its sitting is 
soon discontinued at the approach of Maurice's army. 

The Jesuits make great efforts to reclaim the Evangeli- 
cals in Austria. Peter Canisius. 

#• Commission for reforming the Ecclesiastical Laws in 
England. 

Predestinarian Controversy among Protestants begins. 
Rise of the Majoristic and Stancaristic Controversies 
in the Evangelical Church. 



(or 1550.) * Review of the English Book of Common 
Prayer. Bucer's objections. 



Laelius Socinus in Poland. 



Castellio's Translation of the Bible. 

t Martin Bucer, L. 

Universities founded at Mexico and Lima. 



Period.) era of the reformation. 359 

* Shrewsbury School founded. 



* Execution of Somerset, the English Protector. 



Persecution of the Reformed in France. 
T Francis Xavier, the Apostle of the Indians. 



Maurice, Duke of Saxony, had refused to attend the 
council to be re-assembled at Trent, except on conditions 
greatly in favour of the Protestant cause. 

He now turns his arms against the emperor, and com- 
pels him to conclude a Treaty at Passau, by which he 
engages to release the Elector of Saxony and the Land- 
grave of Hesse ; to revoke the Interim ; to grant to the 
Protestants the free exercise of their religion ; and to as- 
semble, in the course of six months, a diet, for the settling 
of all religious differences, or at least for the establish- 
ment of perfect toleration. 

The Nestorian Patriarch, John Sulaca, at Rome, pro- 
fesses adherence to the Romish Church. 



Sacramentarian Controversy renewed by the attacks of 
Joachim Westphal upon Calvin. 



Jesuit colleges receive from the pope the privileges of 
universities. 

* English Book of Common Prayer. Second Liturgy 
of Edward VI. (under the direction of Cranmer, with 
the aid of Bucer and Peter Martyr. Substantially the 
same as that now in use). Second Ordination Service. 

Acts of Parliament, enjoining the observance of holy 
days, and fasting on Fridays and Saturdays in Lent, and 
other fast days ; and declaring the marriage of the clergy 
legal, and their children legitimate. 



Universities of Dillingen and Orihuela founded. 
T Hermann, Archbishop of Cologne. (" Osiander, 
"j" Paul Jovius, historian. 

a a 4 



360 ERA OF THE REFORMATION. (Sixth 

1553 * Mary, Queen of England, 

t George, Prince of Anhalt. 



Roman Catholic Missions to China. 



# In England, under Edward, Forty-two Articles of 
Religion were published by royal proclamation, probably 
the work of Cranmer. 

•* Afterwards, under Mary, measures are taken for re- 
storing the Romish religion. Gardiner, Chancellor. 
Bonner recovers his see. Preaching prohibited. Cran- 
mer, having published a protest against the Mass, com- 
mitted to the Tower on charge of high-treason. Acts of 
Edward VI. repealed. Weston, Dean of Westminster, 
prolocutor in the Convocation now assembled, aptly 
declares to the Reformers, " You have the word, but we 
have the sword ! " 



Majoristic Controversy, respecting the necessity of good 
works. 



* In England, the larger Catechism published, with 
royal sanction. 

* St. Bartholomew's Hospital, Christ's Hospital, and 
Bridewell, founded by Edward, in accordance with the 
advice of Ridley. 

* After the accession of Mary, the Common Prayer and 
the Catechism were declared heretical by Convocation. Mar- 
riage of the clergy no longer sanctioned ; married clergy 
ejected from their benefices. 



Michael Servetus burnt, at Geneva, as a blasphemer. 
(His Antitrinitarian system combined the Samosatian and 
Sabellian errors.) 

N.B. It is to be remembered, to the grief and humi- 
liation of all reformed Catholic Christians, that men whose 
names are deservedly held in honour in their churches, — 






Period,) era of the reformation. 361 

Calvin, Beza, and Melanchthon, —sanctioned the infliction 
of capital punishment on this fanatical teacher of error. 



* Mary, Queen of England, married to Philip, King 
of Spain. 

* Cranmer, Ridley, and Latimer, engage in a public 
disputation at Oxford, against the Roman Catholic party 
supported by Convocation. 

Cardinal Pole, pope's legate, arrives in England; ab- 
solves the nation, and receives it once more into the 
(Roman) Catholic Church. Acts against heresy revived, 



Calvin's doctrine concerning Predestination occasions 
controversies in Switzerland. But his " Consensus Pas- 
torum Genevensium de aeterna Predestination e " is 
adopted by an assembly of divines at Zurich. 



The bishop of Paris and the Sorbonne protest against 
the introduction of Jesuits into France. 



Divisions among the Mennonite Anabaptists, relating 
especially to Church discipline (Fleming Baptists, the 
more strict ; Waterland, the more lax). 



Calvin writes against Westphal. 



Diet of Augsburg. 

September 25. — Religious Peace of Augsburg; con- 
firming the Protestant Churches of Germany in all their 
rights and possessions, and recognising their independ- 
ence of the pope. 

* Violent persecutions of the Reformed in England, 
promoted by Gardiner. Rogers burnt at Smithfield, 
Hooper at Gloucester, Saunders at Coventry, Taylor at 
Hadley. Inquisitorial measures for the detection of here- 
tics. Death of Gardiner. Cardinal Pole inclined to 
moderate measures. Cranmer condemned at Oxford. 



362 



ERA OF THE REFORMATION. 



(Sixth 



1555 



\s- 



Latimer and Ridley burnt. Knox seeks refuge at 
Geneva. 



Pfeffinger, at Leipsic, having adopted the views of 
Melanchthon, publishes his " Propositiones De Libero 
Arbitrio ; " and thus gives rise to the Synergistic Contro- 
versy. 

The Osiandrian Controversy continues to rage with 
great violence in Prussia. The Osiandrian party, with 
Funk at its head, prevails for a time. 

* Predestinarian Controversy among English Protest- 
ants painfully violent. 



* Mary endeavours to restore religious houses in 
England. 

# Translation of the Psalms into English metre for 
use in public worship, by Sternhold, Hopkins, and others, 
begun in the reign of Edward VI., completed in the reign 
of Mary. 

T Justus Jonas, L. 



— t Henry Nicholas, founder of the Family of Love. 



List of Popes, Patriarchs, and Archbishops of 
Canterbury, from the Year 15*20 to 1555. 



1520. Jeremiah I. 

1522. Adrian VI. 

1523. Clement VII. 
— Joannicus I. 

His successors were 
Dionysius II. 
Jehosaphat II. 



1533. * Thomas Cranmer. 

1534. Paul III. 
1550. Julius III. 
1555. Marcellus II. 

— Paul IV. 






Period.) era of the reformation. 363 



Councils from the Year 1520 to 1555. 

Various Conferences took place between Protestants and Romanists; 
also, Assemblies of Protestant Churches. 

1528. Paris. Bourges. Lyons. 
1536. Cologne. 

1545. First Session of the Council of Trent. — 
The Last General Council. 



END OF THE SIXTH PERIOD. 



PERIOD VII. 

FROM THE REFORMATION TO THE PRESENT TIME, 

1556—1837. 



1556 



Ferdinand I. Emperor of Germany. 

Philip II. King of Spain, 

after the abdication of Charles V. 

( # Mary, Queen of England. 

Henry II. King of France.) 



The Greek Church is now under the Turkish yoke ; but it 
recognises the patriarch of Constantinople as its head. 

During this century the controversy between the Greek and 
Roman Churches continues ; attempts at union fail. 

A part of the Nestorians conform to the Church of 
Rome. 

Doctrines of the Reformation spread from Germany 
into Spain, where they made some impression, particularly 
at Valladolid and Seville. They were, however, sup- 
pressed by the vigilance of the Inquisition, and cruel 
persecution. (Annual celebration of the Auto-da- Fe, 
after 1559.) 

Controversies between the divines of Switzerland and 
those of the Low Countries. 

Majoristic Controversy continues. 
Funk, leader of the Osiandrian party at Konigsberg, 



(Seventh Period.) from the reformation, etc. 3b'5 

obliged to retract his opinions. But the controversy not 
yet at an end. 



Jesuit Missionaries proceed to Abyssinia and China. 

The pope having espoused the cause of France, the 
Duke of Alva invades the papal territory, at the head of 
Spanish troops. 

Calvin and the Church of Geneva send missionaries to 
Brazil ; but the undertaking is soon abandoned. 



* Persecution in England continues. Cranmer burnt ; 
Cardinal Pole, Archbishop of Canterbury. Eighty-five 
persons in various parts of England put to death for 
heresy this year. 

John a Lasco zealously propagates reformed doctrine 
in Poland. 

Reformation makes some progress in France (1521 — 
1563) amidst powerful opposition. 



t Ignatius Loyola.— J. Lainez becomes general of the 
order of Jesuits, which continues to increase in importance. 
It is established in Italy, Germany, Spain, Portugal, 
France, Brazil, Ethiopia, the East Indies, and possesses 
one hundred colleges. 

* English Reformers in foreign parts dispute among 
themselves concerning liturgy and ceremonies. 



David Joris, or Georgi, a mystic Anabaptist. 



Beza publishes his Translation of the Bible. 

T Sleidan, the celebrated historian of the Reformation. 

Protestant divines of this period render great service 
to the cause of religion by their editions, translations, and 
expositions of Holy Scripture. 

They also effect improvements in Church History and 
Catechetical Theology. 



366 from the reformation (Seventh 

1557 The pope makes peace with Spain. 



# Visitation of the English universities. Remains of 
Bucer and Fagius burnt at Cambridge ; at Oxford, those 
of Peter Martyr's wife insulted. Persecution continues. 
Seventy-nine persons suffer this year for heresy. Com- 
mission to Bonner for the discovery of heresy. 

# Deed of Union framed by Scotch Reformers in Con- 
gregation, for resisting tyrannical opposition to their pro- 
ceedings. 

1558 t Charles V. 



Frankfort Recess — for allaying contentions in the 
Lutheran Church. 

Reformation makes progress in Hungary and Tran- 
sylvania. 

* Persecution of Protestants in England continued. 
This year thirty-nine persons suffer death for heresy. A 
proclamation issued, forbidding people to pray for the 
sufferers. Total number of victims during the reign of 
Mary, two hundred and seventy. Death of Mary, and of 
Cardinal Pole. 

# Accession of Elizabeth. 

The Emperor Ferdinand I. makes an unsuccessful 
attempt (1558 — ]564) to effect an union between the 
Romish and Protestant Churches. 



Opinions of Melanchthon, at variance with those of 
Luther, — respecting the presence of Christ in the eu- 
charist, the union of the two natures in his person, and 
the ubiquity of his human nature, — are adopted by many 
divines of the Lutheran communion, and lay the founda- 
tion of the Crypto-calvinistic Controversy. 

(Corpus Doctrinae Misnicum, or Philippicum.) 



* After the accession of Elizabeth, a committee was 
appointed to examine and alter the English Liturgy. 



Period.) to the present time. 367 

Permission granted to celebrate some portions of divine 
service in English. Injunctions against preaching, for 
the avoiding of controversy. 



| John Bugenhagen (Pomeranus). 



Francis II. King of France. 



Protestant missionaries sent to Lapland, under the 
auspices of Gustavus Vasa. 



Confession des Eglises Reformees de France, 
drawn up by a synod at Paris. 

# Coronation of Elizabeth, Queen of England. Su- 
preme authority in matters ecclesiastical restored to the 
sovereign. Act of Uniformity. Disputation in West- 
minster Abbey. Elizabeth's Injunctions, and Articles of 
Visitation. Court of High Commission established. Oath 
of Supremacy imposed, — generally taken. (N.B. Of 
9400 beneficed men in England, only 189 refused to 
take the oath of supremacy ; namely, 14 bishops, 6 abbots, 
12 deans, 12 archdeacons, 15 heads of colleges, 50 pre- 
bendaries, and 80 rectors.) Matthew Parker duly con- 
secrated Archbishop of Canterbury, December 17. 

The whole Bible in English to be set up in every parish 
church. 

# Knox returns to England. 



Fresh persecution of the Waldenses. 



Calvin's Institutio Christiance Religionis completed. 

# At the accession of Elizabeth, great ignorance and 
superstition prevail among the clergy in the English uni- 
versities, and throughout the kingdom. 



368 
1560 



V 



1561 



FROM THE REFORMATION 

Charles IX. King of France. 



(Seventh 



The government of France opposed to the progress of 
the Protestants (Huguenots) in that country. 



* Reformation established in Scotland. Superin tend- 
ency. 

f John a Lasco. 
Cruel suppression of Protestant doctrines in Italy. 



Great commotion in the churches of Saxony, occa- 
sioned by the Synergistic Controversy. The Synergistic 
party prevails for a time against the strict Lutheran. 
But, eventually, Antisynergistic doctrines are established. 



* Westminster College founded, 
f Melanchthon. 
Publication of the Magdeburg Centuries begun. 

* Geneva Bible — partly a new translation, and partly 
the old revised (nearly the same as the present authorised 
version). 

# English Book of Common Prayer. Liturgy of Eliza- 
beth, i. e. the Second Book of Common Prayer of Ed- 
ward VI. with a few alterations. 



Attempts to suppress the Reformation in the Netherlands 
had proved abortive. 

The Belgic Confession. 
Conference at Poissy. 



Controversy of Lutherans with Flacius, concerning the 
nature and extent of original sin, or the corruption of 
human nature. 

Jesuits declared exempt from restrictions imposed upon 
other monks, with regard to residence. 






t Menno Simon or Simonis — restorer and reformer 



Period.) TO THE present time. 369 

of the party of Anabaptists ; afterwards called, from him, 
Mennonites. Their chief seat in Holland. 



t Caspar Schwenkfeld. — Schwenkfeldians (a small 
party) in Silesia and North America. 



Wars in France between the Roman Catholics and Pro- 
testants [Huguenots) begin. 



Council of Trent re-opened by Pius IV. 



Heidelberg Catechism. 
(Reformed Church substituted for the Lutheran in the 
Palatinate.) 

Major retracts his offensive expressions relative to the 
necessity of good works in order to salvation ; and the 
controversy subsides soon afterwards, 
f Laelius Socinus. 



t Peter Martyr, R. 
*• Jewel's Apology for the Church of England. 



Close of the Council of Trent. 

Its decrees comprised a condemnation of the Pro- 
testants and their doctrines, and a final ratification and 
establishment of the novel and peculiar tenets of the 
Romish Church. Protestations against the exorbitant 
power of the pope, and declarations in favour of the in- 
dependency of national churches, silenced. Exposition 
of the decrees entrusted to the pope. 

16 In England the taking of the oath of supremacy en- 
forced by a severe act of Parliament. Reformation 
completed. 

* The Thirty-eight Articles published (the original 
forty- two revised and altered). 

* Noel's (revision of the larger) Catechism approved. 

B B 



370 



1563 



1564 



\/ 



v 



from the reformation (Seventh 

* Second Book of Homilies printed. 



University of Dillingen granted to the Jesuits. 



The Antitrinitarians in Poland separate themselves from 
the Protestant churches at the Synod of Pinkzow ; hence 
called Pinkzovians. 

A way is now open for the reception of Socinianism in 
Translyvania. 

j* Sebastian Castellio. * Andreas Musculus. 



Maximilian II. Emperor of Germany; 
an enlightened and tolerant prince. On his accession to 
the empire he refused to take any oath to the pope, ex- 
cept one obliging himself to defend the Catholic Church. 
End of the First Religious War in France. 



Pius IV. confirms the decrees of the Council of Trent 
(Professio Fidei Tridentina). 

The papal system was now broken, but not overthrown. 
Opposed to the progress of improvement and the general spirit 
of the times, it yet preserved its existence by a certain degree 
of consistency in error, and was aided by the incon- 
sistencies and faults of Protestant churches. 



# Violent disputes in England, relating to the use of 
ecclesiastical vestments. 

The English Nonconformists acquire the name of 
Puritans about this time. 



"j" Bernardino Occhino — who, in the latter part of his 
life, fell into Antitrinitarian error. Also, Matth. Gri- 
baldi, an Arian, native of Italy. 

| Hyperius. 

j" Calvin — the Reformer or Restorer of the Reformed 
(Zwinglian) Church in Switzerland. 



Period.) to the present time. 371 

1,564' University of Besancon founded. 



Philip II. of Spain renews his severe decree against 
"heretics" in the Low Countries. 



Spain receives the Tridentine decrees; — France 
hesitates. 

In the Low Countries great dissatisfaction occasioned 
by the introduction of the Inquisition. Compromise at 
Brussels. 

# English Nonconformists. — Large numbers of persons 
in England, clergy and others, object to the use of eccle- 
siastical dresses and ceremonies, enjoined by the Act of 
Uniformity, and to other matters connected with the con- 
stitution and administration of the Church. 

#■ Advertisements of the ecclesiastical commissioners 
(i. e. canons enforcing uniformity), published this year. 



Unitarians, as a separate body, especially at Pinkzow 
and Racow. About this time they form distinct societies 
also in Transylvania. 

j" Paul Alciato, an Italian Antitrinitarian. 



Chemnitz publishes his Examen Concilii Tridentini. 

University of Milan founded. 
| Peter Paul Verger, Bishop of Capo d' Istria. f Wil- 
liam Far el, R. 



The pope cites the queen of Navarre to Rome. France 
compels him to withdraw the citation. 

* Mary, Queen of Scotland, having failed in her at- 
tempts to restore the Roman Catholic Church in her 
dominions, abdicates. 



Pius V. endeavours to enforce the universal reception 
of the decrees of the Council of Trent. Roman Cate- 
chism, or Catechism of the Council of Trent. 
Helvetic Confession, 
b b 2 



372 from the reformation (Seventh 

1566 * Same of the London clergy, ejected for refusal to 
comply with the Advertisements, hold private meetings 
for prayer and devotion. 

* In Scotland, the General Assembly decides upon the 
adoption of the Geneva (Presbyterian) discipline. But 
the court retains sufficient power to prevent the legal 
establishment of the Presbytery until 1592. 



t J. Valentin Gentilis, an Italian Antitrinitarian, be- 
headed at Bern; partly on account of his errors, and 
partly as a punishment for a civil offence. 



University of Strasburg founded. 
j" John Agricola, L. "J" George Cassander, R. C. 



1567 Duke of Alva in the Netherlands. 

Second Religious War in France. 



Rise of the Jansenist Controversy in the Church of Rome. 
— Opinions concerning divine grace, advanced by Baius 
(Michael de Bay), excite a controversy in the Church of 
Rome, and lay the foundation of the Jansenist party. 

The Council of Trent pronounced no decision respect- 
ing Predestination, and couched its decrees concerning 
Grace and Free Will in ambiguous terms. The August- 
inian doctrines on these points were contained in the 
formularies of the Church; but a different system (Semi- 
pelagian) had been long held by a large portion of the 
clergy. The Augustinian Thomist party in the Church 
now begin to assert their doctrines strenuously against the 
Scotists or Semipelagians. The Franciscans of Louvain 
select seventy-six propositions from the lectures of De 
Bay, and submit them to the pope; the latter, at the insti- 
gation of the Jesuits, condemns the propositions, and for- 
bids all further controversy concerning them (a.d. 1567). 



j t 5(3g Third Religious War in France. 

Prince of Orange in the Netherlands. 



Period.) TO THE present time. 373 

1568 Pius V. renews the bull In Ccena Domini. 

Bold hierarchical claims. 



Divisions among the Polish Antitrinitarians. A society 
of Arians established at Sandek, on the borders of Hun- 
gary- 

# English College of secular (R. C.) clergy at Douay 
founded. 

# The Bishop's (or Parker's) Bible ; i. e. a corrected 
edition of the Great Bible. 



Breviarium Romanum, 



1569 Dispute of the pope with France, Spain, and Venice, 
respecting the payment of taxes by the clergy. 



Maximilian grants a qualified religious liberty to his 
Protestant subjects in Austria. 

# The pope (Pius V.) publishes a bull, forbidding obe- 
dience to Elizabeth, as being excommunicate. 



Jansenist Controversy. 
Baius (de Bay) compelled to retract his alleged errors, 
notwithstanding his appeal to the authority of Augustin. 



1570 Missionaries sent from the Church of Geneva to 
America. 



Protestant doctrines had made considerable progress 
in Poland. 

Consent of Faith at Sendomir, 
between the Evangelical, Reformed, and Bohemian 
Brethren. 

#• Controversy between Cartwright and Whitgift at 
Cambridge, respecting the Liturgy and episcopal govern- 
ment. Cartwright silenced by authority. 

* Bull of Pope Pius V. published in England. 
b b 3 



374 from the reformation {Seventh 

* Alienation and waste of Church property in England 
countenanced by Elizabeth throughout her reign. 



1570 Crypto-calvinistic Controversy in the Lutheran Church, 
respecting the bodily presence of Christ in the eucharist, 
takes its rise. Peucer and other Lutheran divines main- 
tain a doctrine resembling that of the Reformed churches. 
At first favoured by the elector of Saxony. 



Missale Romanum. 

T John Brentz, L. 

1571 Consensus Dresdensis. 

The Belgic Confession approved by the States. 

* The English Convocation attempts to improve the 
ecclesiastical laws ; no canons ratified. Act of Parliament 
requires subscription to the Articles of Religion, and makes 
regulations respecting the age requisite for ordination of 
priests and deacons, and concerning Church property. 
Laws against Roman Catholics (occasioned by the bull 
of Pope Pius V.). 

* N.B. The Articles of Religion, after a review, assumed 
their present form and number. These Thirty-nine Arti- 
cles were subscribed by Convocation, and published under 
the superintendence of Jewel. 



# From this time members of the high church party 
in England strenuously maintain the doctrine of the (ex- 
clusively) divine origin and institution of Episcopacy ; affirm- 
ing, at the same time, the apostolical succession of bishops. 



Jesuits obtain permission to lecture in all universities. 
# Poor Laws established in England. 



* Doctrines of the Familists begin to spread in England, 



t Peter Viret, R. 



Period.) to the present time. 375 

I57I * English universities incorporated by act of Parliament. 
* Harrow School founded. 



157^ Fourth Religious War in France. 



Massacre of French Protestants [Huguenots) 

on St. Bartholomew's Day. 
Rejoicings and public thanksgiving at Rome. 
Sixty thousand Protestants slaughtered in France in 
the course of thirty days. 

* In England, laws against Nonconformists enforced. 
Presbytery of Wandsworth. Admonition to Parliament 
Episcopacy in Scotland. 

# f John Knox, the Scotch Reformer. 
1573 * In England, a proclamation against Nonconformists 
(Puritans). 

* The English Puritans and Scotch Presbyterians 
were attached to the doctrine, as well as discipline, of the 
Reformed Church of Geneva. 



I574 Henry III. King of France. 

Fifth Religious War in France. 



*■ Partial suppression of exercises, called Prophesyings, 
in England. 

Crypto-calvinistic Controversy. — Exegesis perspicua con- 
troversial de ccena Domini, published ; in which the Wit- 
temberg divines openly espouse the doctrines of Calvin. 
The elector of Saxony interferes in support of the strict 
Lutheran tenets. Peucer and other leaders of the Crypto- 
calvinistic party are imprisoned. 



Congregation of the Priests of the Oratory in Italy com- 
pletely formed. 

Faustus Socinus begins to propagate his opinions at 
Basle. 

B IB 4 



376 FROM THE REFORMATION (Seventh 

1574 1 John Campanus, an Antitrinitarian (in prison). 



Publication of the Magdeburg Centuries completed, 
t George Major, L. 



1575 Wars of the Huguenots in France continue. 

* Increasing opposition of the Puritans to the Esta- 
blished Church of England. 



Jesuits empowered to act as censors of books. 



Sect of the Alombrades, or the Enlightened, in Spain, 
* Some Anabaptists in London — discovered and im- 
prisoned. The congregation dispersed. 



Universities of Ley den and Altdorf founded. 
T Matthias Flacius Illyricus, L. T Henry Bullinger, R. 



1576 Rodolph II. Emperor of Germany; warmly at- 
tached to the Romish See. 



Jesuit missions make great progress in Japan. Churches 
built; schools founded. 

The Holy League in France. The king of Navarre at 
the head of the Reformed. 



Tlie Book ofTorgaU) designed to put an end to the 
Crypto-calvinistic Controversy in the Lutheran Church 
(revised and completed next year at Berg). 

Some Lutheran divines open a correspondence with 
Jeremiah, Patriarch of Constantinople, with a view to 
union ; without effect. 



Jesuits receive permission to practise medicine. 



Universities of Helmstadt and Wilna founded, 



Period.) to the present time. 377 

1577 Sixth Religious War in France. 



* Cuthbert Maine, a Roman Catholic priest, put to 
death in England for maintaining the power of the Pope 
against the authority of Elizabeth. 

* Final suppression of Prophesyings. The queen se- 
questers Grindal, Archbishop of Canterbury, and confines 
him to his house ; for^not being so zealous against Non- 
conformists as the queen desired. 

# Presbyterianism prevails in Scotland. 



1578 In Poland, continued dissensions between various Pro- 
testant ; churches and parties give advantage to the 
Romish cause. 

Rodolph withdraws the liberty granted to the Protest- 
ants of Austria by Maximilian. 



Faustus Socinus in Transylvania, upon the invitation of 
Blandrata. He disputes against Davidis, first superin- 
tendent, or bishop, of the Unitarians in Transylvania, 
who had adopted peculiar tenets concerning the person of 
Christ, teaching that he is only a deified man. Davidic 
remains unconvinced, is condemned by the Unitarians as a 
heretic, and thrown into prison; where he died in 1579. 



University of Evora founded. 
#■ English College for education of secular Roman 
Catholic clergy at Rome founded. 



1579 Union of the northern provinces of the Netherlands 
at Utrecht. William of Nassau, Stadtholder. 

This Union of Utrecht tends to establish the Reform- 
ation and religious liberty in Holland. 



Jansenist Controversy. — A new papal bull, directed against 
the party of Baius. 



378 from the reformation (Seventh 

1580 Renewed contests between the Reformed and Roman 
Catholics in France. 



The Form of Concord published; — containing the 
three Creeds, and the following writings, recognised as 
" symbola publica : " — The Augsburg Confession, — 
Apology for the Confession, — The Articles of Smal- 
cald, — Luther's Catechisms, — and the Book of Tor- 
gau; and a sentence of excommunication against all 
who should refuse to subscribe. 

By the Form of Concord the stamp of authority was 
now given anew to the strict Lutheran doctrines, in oppo- 
sition to the peculiar tenets of Melanchthon and Calvin ; 
but many of the Lutheran churches refused to recognise 
this document, and to receive it among their symbolical 
books ; so that Crypto-calvinistic tenets were not en- 
tirely suppressed. 

* Parsons and Campian in England. 
Attempts to unite the Russian Church to the Romish 
See, by Possevin ; fruitless. 



Mennonites acquire toleration in Holland. 
Confession of the Mennonites ; compiled by John Ries 
and Lubbert Gerard. 



Seminary at Valladolid founded, for education of secu- 
lar clergy. Other seminaries of the same kind founded 
about this time at Seville and Madrid. 

An edition of the Corpus Juris Canonici, authorised 
by the pope. 

The Flacian Controversy runs high among Protestants 
in Germany. 

1581 The United Provinces of the Netherlands (Protestant) 
resist the power of Spain. 



# Parsons obliged to leave England. Campian put to 
death for denying the queen's supremacy. 



Period.) to the present time. 379 

* Convocation petitions the queen in favour of Grindal. 
He was probably restored soon after. Parliament peti- 
tions for ecclesiastical reform. 

* Rise of the Independents, or Congregationalists. 



* Insurrections in Ireland, with a view to the re-esta- 
blishment of the Roman Catholic religion, and the power 
of the pope, in that country. 



Reformation of the Calendar. 
Efforts made to obtain general acceptance for the 
Heidelberg Catechism and the Belgic Confession through- 
out the Netherlands. 



#■ Rheims New Testament. 
University of Edinburgh founded. 



#• Continued efforts of Seminarists and Jesuits for the 
restoration of the pope's supremacy in England. Rebel- 
lions fostered. Queen's life in danger. 

Whitgift, Archbishop of Canterbury, rigorously en- 
forces the laws relating to Conformity; and demands 
subscription to the Three Articles. 



t Z.Ursinus, R., author of the Heidelberg Catechism. 



Seventh Religious War in Trance. 



f Cardinal Borromeo, Archbishop of Milan. 
-# In England, Articles and Interrogatories ex officio 
mero. Many eminent members of the Church opposed 
to these proceeding. Articuli pro Clero — regulations 
affecting ecclesiastical discipline. 



Simon Budaeus, founder of an Antitrinitarian party in 
Lithuania, excommunicated and deprived. 



380 from the reformation (Seventh 

1585 Embassy from Japan to the pope. 



University of Franeker founded ; 

also, University of Gratz (restored in 1827). 

* Richard Hooker, Master of the Temple. 



* Contests between Protestants and Romanists in 
England now partake very much of a political cha- 
racter. 

*■ Prosecutions of Roman Catholics in England for 
treasonable attempts against the crown. Acts against 
Jesuits and Seminary Priests. 

* Puritans urgent for reformation of ecclesiastical laws 
and discipline, for the establishment of. a preaching 
ministry, revision of the Common Prayer, and inti'oduc- 
tion of an admixture of Presbyterian government. 

* Rise of the dispute between Travers and Hooker 
concerning Church government. 



1586 * Babington's conspiracy against Elizabeth, Queen of 
England. 

The pope (Sixtus V.) limits the number of cardinals 
to seventy. 

Martyrologium Romanum. 



t Martin Chemnitz, L. 



1587 * Execution of Mary, Queen of Scots. 



* In England, the efforts of Anti-episcopalians are suc- 
cessfully resisted by the queen. 



Arminius, pastor at Amsterdam, 
t Casp. Olearius, R. 



Period.) to the present time. 381 

Crypto- calvinistic Controversy (Lutheran) very active. 

Jansenist Controversy. — The Jesuits had now taken a 
prominent part in opposing the Augustinian tenets main- 
tained by Baius and his friends. This year, the Theolo- 
gical Faculty of Louvain condemned thirty-four Semi- 
pelagian propositions from the lectures of Less and 
Hamel, two Jesuits of that university. In the following 
year (1588) appeared the celebrated work of the Jesuit 
Molina (Liberi Arbitrii cum Gratiae Donis, Divina 
Praescientia, Providentia, Praedestinatione, et Reproba- 
tione Concordia), in which an attempt is made to unite 
the two systems, but with a leaning towards the Anti- 
augustinian doctrines. The Augustinian party was dis- 
satisfied with this exposition: and Molina was severely 
assailed, especially by the Dominicans. 



Baronius publishes his Annates Ecclesiastici. 
t Heshusius, R. 



j" Valentine Weigel. 
Henry IV. King of France. 



Patriarchate of Moscow established. 
# English Puritans. — Episcopacy attacked by the writ- 
ings of " Martin Marprelate " and others. The press 
seized. Cartwright imprisoned. 



t Baius (Michael de Bay) R. C. f Andr. Dudith, R. C. 
Sixtus repairs the Vatican Library. 



Active opposition to (R. C.) Christianity in Japan. 



Sixtus V., who died this year, may be regarded as the 
last pope who rendered himself formidable to the European 
courts. 



U 



38% from the reformation (Seventh 

1590 James, Margrave of Baden, conforms to the Romish 
Church. 

Conferences at Baden, Emmendingen, and Stuttgart, 
between Protestant and Romish divines. 

Oppression of Protestants in Poland, under Sigis- 
mund II. 



Opposition to the doctrines of Predestination, 8fc. in the 
Reformed Church. 

Hence a difference of opinion between the divines of 
that Church/who defend those doctrines : Supralapsarians, 
dating the decree of predestination before the fall ; and 
Infralapsarians, contending that it was made subse- 
quently. 

Vulgata Sixti V. 



| G. Blandrata, an Antitrinitarian. 



| James Andrea?, L. "|" Jerome Zanchius, R. 
1591 # Trinity College, Dublin, founded. 



1592 Visitation Articles of Torgau, in support of strict Lu- 
theran doctrines. Ejectment of divines refusing to sub- 
scribe. 

-*■ Legal establishment of the Presbytery in Scotland. 



Crypto-calvinistic doctrines suppressed in the Lutheran 
Church. 

Faustus Socinus, in Poland, gradually induces among 
the Unitarians of that country a greater agreement of 
opinion than had hitherto prevailed, heals their divisions, 
and effects an uniformity of discipline and worship. 

University of Paderborn founded. 
| Nicholas Selnecker, L. 



Period,) to the present time. 383 

15Q3 Henry IV. of France, hitherto a Protestant, conforms to 
the Church of Rome; but continues to tolerate Protestants. 
His ambassadors afterwards, at Rome, solemnly abjure 
the Protestant faith ; and the pope grants absolution to 
Henry in a humiliating manner. 



Attempts to restore the Romish religion in Sweden 
utterly fail. 

* In England, severe laws against Puritans and Roman 
Catholics. Some Roman Catholics executed for treason- 
able practices. N.B. During the reign of Elizabeth, 204 
Roman Catholics were put to death; namely, 15 for 
denying the queen's supremacy, 126 for exercising 
priestly functions, and the rest for being reconciled to the 
Church of Rome, or aiding and assisting priests. Also, 
90 died in prison, 105 were banished. Towards the end 
of the reign severe measures became less necessary, and 
less frequent. 

Vulgata Clementis VIII. 



# University of New Aberdeen founded. 



1595 Index Tridentinus, — i.e. a list of books prohibited by 
the Council of Trent, — published. 

-# Lambeth Articles. 



# Predestinarian Controversy at Cambridge. 



f William Whitaker, R. 



1596 Renewed opposition to (R. C.) Christianity in Japan, 
"f J. Bodin, an Antichristian writer. 



University of Barcelona founded. 
"(" Toletus, a Jesuit. 



384 from the reformation (Seventh 

1 597 Jansenist Controversy. — The pope appoints a body of 
commissioners for the examination of the questions in 
dispute : delegates from both parties summoned to appear 
at Rome. 

l$gS Edict of Nantes; 

securing to French Protestants the free exercise of their 
religion. 

Congregatio de Auxiliis at Rome, for deciding the 
Molinistic Controversies. 



T Benedict Arias Montanus, R. C. 



1599 Union of a part of the Nestorian Church, on the coast 
of Malabar, with the Church of Rome. The other section 
of that Church falls under oppression. 



Cen- 
tury. 



, End of The means used by the See of Rome to restore its 
™_ broken power, and to check the progress of the Reform- 
teenth ation, may be classed under the following heads : — 

The decrees of the Council of Trent ; and the con- 
tinued assertion of many high, but fabulous, preten- 
sions. 

The Inquisition. 

Prohibition and expurgation of books. 

Missionaries, Jesuits, and Congregations. 

Political intrigues. 

During this century, persecutions of Protestants, more 
or less severe, were carried on by the Romanists, in Ger- 
many, Italy, France, Spain, the Netherlands, England, 
Scotland, Hungary, and Transylvania. 

In some cases, also, Protestants displayed the will, 
when they had the power, to persecute the members of 
the Romish Church. 



1600 



t Giordano Bruno (Jordanus Brunus), a philosophising 
opponent of Christianity. 



Period.) to the present time. 385 

* The pope grants a pardon to the rebels in Ireland, a 
to Crusaders. 

1 600 Rise of controversy with Arminius at Amsterdam, con- ^ 
cerning Predestination. 

# Controversy in England between the Jesuits and 
other Roman Catholic clergy ; suppressed by the pope. 



Jubilee at Rome. 



University of Parma founded. 



t David Chytrseus, L. 



1601 Rodolph II. expels the Anabaptists from Austria. 



1602 The court of Sweden had at different times made 
efforts to restore the Romish form of religion in that 
country. This year the Swedes depose Sigismund, who 
refuses either to conform to the Lutheran Church himself, 
or to cause his son to be educated in Protestant prin- 
ciples. 

f * William Perkins, "f Francis Junius, R. 



1603 * James I. King of Great Britain. 



Matth. Ricci, a Jesuit, propagates a modification of 
Christianity in China. 



Oppression of Protestants in Austria. 
# Millenary petition, presented to James after his 
accession, by the friends of the Puritan party in England. 



A synod at Chap in Dauphine decides against the 
opinion of John Piscator, a Reformed divine, who main- 

c c 



386 from the reformation (Seventh 

tained that the sufferings of Christ alone (to the exclusion 
of his active obedience) form the ground of justification. 

Arminius, now Professor of Divinity at Ley den, soon 
enters into controversy ivith Gomarus, respecting the doc- 
trine of Absolute Predestination. 



1603 t ^Egidius Hunnius, L. j* Gregory of Valentia, a 
Spanish Jesuit. 

I60i Charles IX. King of Sweden. 

Oppression of Protestants in Hungary. 



# Conference at Hampton Court. 
# Convocation frames a body of canons, which receive 
the royal assent. Parliament declares alienation of Church 
property to the crown illegal ; renews statutes against 
Jesuits, seminary priests, and recusants. Roman Catholics 
and Puritans dissatisfied. 



$■ English Book of Common Prayer, 
A few alterations made in the Common Prayer, after a 
review, under James. 



j" Faustus Socinus. 



| Gabriel Vasquez, a Spanish Jesuit. 



1 60<5 Dispute of Clement VIII. with Venice, respecting the 
property of the Church, and the exemption of the clergy 
from secular jurisdiction. Paul Sarpi. 



# Gunpowder Plot in England, intended to promote 
the cause of the Roman Catholics. The detection fol- 
lowed by severe statutes against Papists, and active pun- 
ishment, amounting perhaps to persecution. 

N.B. Many fines were levied; 128 priests banished; 
28 priests and 7 laymen put to death. 



Period.) to the present time. 387 

Flacian controversies continue in various parts of Ger- 
many. 

Dispute between the divines of the Netherlands and 
those of Holland respecting a proposed revision of the 
Heidelberg Catechism and Belgic Confession. 



160.5 Racovian Catechism published. 



1 Theodore Beza, R. 



1 606 Peace of Vienna. 



# The pope forbids the English Roman Catholics to 
take the oath of allegiance. 

The Lutheran and Reformed in Hungary obtain the 
privilege of the free exercise of their religion by the peace 
of Vienna. 



(1605 to 1607.) The Republic of Venice having laid 
restrictions upon the clergy, the pope (1605) demanded 
their repeal, under penalty of excommunication and inter- 
dict. The Republic maintained its rights ; and, after pub- 
lication of the interdict, banished the Jesuits (1606), who 
were active in support of Rome. The pope, having in 
vain attempted to reduce the Republic to obedience by 
force of arms, was obliged to yield ; and peace was effected 
by the mediation of France (1607). 



1 607 Jansenist Controversy. — The Pope dismisses the delegates 
of both parties from Rome, with a promise to publish a 
decision on the disputed points at a more convenient time. 
He gives strict injunctions that both parties should refrain 
from harsh or calumniating language in conducting the 
controversy. 

* James I. King of England, proposed the erection of 
a college at Chelsea for the promotion of controversial 
divinity. The plan was never fully carried into effect. 

c c 2 



388 

1607 



J 



1608 



1609 



1610 



FROM THE REFORMATION 

University of Giessen founded. 



(Seventh 



"(" Cardinal Ccesar Baronius. 



Continued jealousy and rivalry between Romanists and 
Protestants in Germany. 

" Evangelical Union " of German Protestants, 
under Frederic.V. Elector Palatine. 

* First Baptist Church in England (Arminian). 



"Catholic League" under Maximilian, Duke of 
Bavaria, — a union of Romanist princes in Germany 
against the Protestants. 

Protestants in Austria recover some degree of religious 
liberty. 



Public conference between Arminius and Gomarus. After 
the death of Arminius, his opinions continue to spread 
rapidly. Uytenbogaert and Episcopius at the head of the 
Arminian party. 

"f Arminius ( Harm sen ; Germ. Hermann), R. 



# Douay version of the Bible. 



Louis XIII. King of France. 
t Matth. Ricci, R. C. Missionary in China. 
Jesuit Missions in Paraguay. 



Independents in Holland. 

# John Robinson and Henry Jacob found the New In- 
dependents in England. 

Paul V. confirms the bull In Ccend Domini. 

# In Scotland, episcopacy begins to gain ground. James 
establishes a court of ecclesiastical commission. 



The Arminian divines deliver their Remonstrance to 



Period.) to the present time. 389 

the States of Holland ; hence called Remonstrants, and 
their (Calvinist) opponents Contra-remonstrants. 



1610 J. Gerhard's Loci Theologici. 

"I" Thomas Sanchez, a Jesuit. 



1611 Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden. 



Conference at the Hague, between Remonstrants and 
Contra-remonstrants ; without effect. 



Jansenist Controversy. — The pope commands strict 
silence respecting the points which had hitherto been so 
fiercely debated. 

Rosicrucians in Germany. 



#■ Present authorised English Translation of the Bible 
printed. 

T Antony Possevin, an Italian Jesuit. 



16 12 Matthias, Emperor of Germany. 



Another outbreak against the (R, C.) Christian com- 
munities in Japan. 



Discord between Roman Catholics and Protestants in Ger- 
many fomented by the Jesuits. Jealousy between the German 
Evangelical and Reformed Churches. 
\Q\<% * Episcopacy in Scotland. 



Laws against Anabaptists in the Canton of Zurich. 



* Charter House founded, 
c c 3 



390 from the reformation (Seventh 

1613 Conference at Delft, between Remonstrants and Con- 
tra-remonstrants; without effect. 



Order of the Fathers of the Oratory, or The Congregation 
of the Priests of the Oratory of Jesus in France, founded by 
Berulle in 1611, confirmed by Paul V. 



George Calixtus, Professor of Divinity at Helmstadt. 



Disputes between the pope and France respecting the 
positions advanced by the Jesuit, Francis Suarez, concern- 
ing the papal power over temporal princes. 



1614 The elector of Brandenburg conforms to the Reformed 
Church. 



Church of St. Peter's at Rome complete (begun in 
1506). 

University of Groningen founded. 



1615 The Reformed (or Calvinian) tenets supplant those of the 
Evangelical (or Lutheran) Church, in many parts of Ger- 
many. 

The writings of Arndt, Gerhard, and others, operate in 
Germany as a wholesome remedy against the effects of the 
prevailing cold and lifeless orthodoxy, and assist in pro- 
moting vital and practical religion, 

J. V. Andrese exposes the corruptions of Lutheran 
theology. 

In Spain, the controversy concerning the Immaculate 
Conception of the Virgin renewed between Dominicans 
and Franciscans. 



Crypto-socinianism at Altdorf; suppressed. 



1616 Violent opposition to (R. C.) Christianity in Japan, 
occasioned by misconduct of a Jesuit. Churches destroyed. 



Period.) to the present time. 391 

Marcus Antonius de Dominis, Archbishop of Spalatro 
and Primate of Dalmatia and Croatia, in England, — 
renounces the errors of the Church of Rome, and con- 
forms to the Church of England. He writes against 
papal error (De Republica Ecclesiastica). 

Constitution of the Church of the United Brethren settled 
by the Synod of Zerawitz. 

% A second Baptist Church in London (Calvinistic). 



Order of the Piarists (or Fathers of Religious Schools) 
founded, confirmed, and extended, during the papacy of 
Paul V. This order, designed for the instruction of 
youth, became peculiarly obnoxious to the Jesuits. 



f Leonard Hutter, L. 



# In Scotland, the Assembly of St. Andrew's consults 
about the introduction of a liturgy. 



T Francis Suarez, a Spanish Jesuit. 



In Bohemia, the Protestants, finding themselves unable 
to endure tyrannical and aggressive measures any longer, 
take up arms. Such was the 

Commencement of the Thirty Years' War, political and 
religious. 

The Prince of Orange sides with the Dutch Contra- 
remonstrants. 



* In Scotland, Articles of Perth, by the Assembly, in 
favour of ecclesiastical rites and ceremonies. 



Order of the Salesianerins [of the Visitation of our Lady) 
founded by Francis de Sales. 

* In England, the king (James I.) issues a proclam- 
ation in favour of liberty and amusements on the Lord's 
day (Book of Sports). 

Congregation of St. Maur founded, 
c c 4 



V 



392 from the reformation {Seventh 

(Reformation-union of Benedictine monasteries in 
France.) 



1618 j" J. Volket, an Antitrinitarian. 



f Cardinal J. D. Duperron. 



(1618, 1619.) Synod of Dort. 

(Belgic Confession and Heidelberg Catechism, the 
symbols of the Reformed Church in Holland.) 

Toleration refused to the Remonstrants, until 1630. 

The doctrines of the Remonstrants are condemned, 
and the Calvinistic scheme approved, by the Synod of 
Dort. Doctrine of Absolute Predestination asserted, but 
without affirmation of supralapsarian tenets. 

* The Church of England gave countenance to the de- 
crees of the Synod of Dort. Calvinistic tenets now pre- 
vail in that Church. 



1619 Ferdinand II. Emperor of Germany. 

Barneveld, Grand Pensioner of Holland, put to death. 



t J. Heilbrunner, L. 



1 620 Battle of Prague 



Protestants in Bohemia defeated by the Roman Catho- 
lic forces of the League. 

Ferdinand II. under the influence of Jesuits, designs the 
overthrow of the Protestant religion in Germany. 



Suppression of the Evangelical religion in Austria. 
* The English Baptists present a Confession of Faith 
to the king and parliament. 



nourishing period of the Socinian societies in Poland, and 
the Unitarians in Transylvania. 



Period) to the present time. 393 



1621 



1622 



Buxtorf asserts the high antiquity of the Hebrew vowel 
points. 

Philip IV. King of Spain. 



Renewal of the war between Spain and the Nether- 
lands. 

War between French Protestants and Louis XIII. 



Cyril Lucaris, Patriarch of Constantinople, endeavours to 
effect an union between the Greek and Protestant Churches, 
The Evangelical Union dissolved. 



Universities of Saltzburg (R. C), and Rinteln founded. 



f John Arndt, L. "\ Daniel Chamer, R. f Cardinal 
Robert Bellarmin. 



#■ British missionaries, especially Independents and 
Presbyterians, actively employed in propagating the Gos- 
pel in the Anglo-American colonies (John Elliot). 



Congregatio de Propaganda Fide founded at Rome 
by Gregory XV. 

Marcus Antonius de Dominis returns to communion 
with the Romish Church, and retracts his published opi- 
nions. (In 1623, at Rome, he was thrown into prison, 
where he died, 1624; afterwards burnt in effigy.) 

* In England, James issues a proclamation for releasing 
Popish recusants; and in general shows some favour to- 
wards Roman Catholics. These measures extremely un- 
popular. 

Arminian Confession, composed by Episcopius. 
Lutherans driven out of Bohemia. 



f Valentine Schwaltz, Socinian. 



t David Pareus, R. f Francis de Sales, R. C. 



894 from the reformation (Seventh 

loQo Ignatius Loyola canonized. 



The sect of the Alombrades, the Enlightened, re-appears 
in Spain. Suppressed by the Inquisition. 



j Paolo Sarpi, author of the History of the Council of 
Trent, R. C. 

1624 Successes of the Imperialists. 



Erpenius edites the work of Capellus against the anti- 
quity of the Hebrew points. 



t J. Gretser, R. C, 
T J. Bohme, a theosophist. 



1625 * Charles I. King of Great Britain 



o 



University of Mantua founded. 



t Paul Laymann, a Jesuit. 



# Episcopacy increasingly unpopular in Scotland; a 
consequence of the tyranny and oppression of the ruling 
party. 

1626 League of Holland, Sweden, Denmark, and German 
Protestants against the Emperor. 

* In England, Charles endeavours to make the Church 
an instrument of raising money in support of the State. 



The new Convent of Port Royal de Paris founded by 
the Abbess Arnauld (see 1233). 



Religious liberty formally granted to the Mennonites 
in Holland. 



Period.) TO the tresent time. 395 



1626 



t * John Robinson. | Balth. Meisner, L. 



Continuation of religious wars in France. 



Urban VIII. publishes the bull In Coend Domini, in its 
present form. 

Seminarium (Collegium) pro Propaganda Fide. 

Persecution of Protestants in Bohemia and Moravia. 

# In England, the Established Church is employed as a 
tool for the support of the arbitrary power of Charles and 
his court. 



* Arminian tenets now begin to prevail among the 
clergy of the Church of England. They are held gene- 
rally by the dignitaries of the Church. 



t Balth. Menzer, L. 



Adam Schall succeeds Ricci in China, and carries on 
the work of conversion. Many churches ; some accounts 
say that more than half a million of the Chinese now bore 
the Christian name. 



* A declaration prefixed to a new edition of the Thirty- 
nine Articles of Religion in England, forbidding all per- 
sons to interpret them in any but the grammatical sense. 



T Wolf. Franz, L. 

Overwhelming power of the emperor. Wallenstein. 

The emperor publishes an Edict of Restitution, by 
which the German Protestants were compelled to restore 
the property of ecclesiastical foundations originally held 
by the Church of Rome; and the " religious peace" was 
declared to relate only to those who subscribed the Con- 
fession of Augsburg. 



Vanini burnt, for atheism, at Toulouse. 



396 from the reformation (Seventh 

1630 France in alliance with Gustavus Adolphus against 
the emperor, in favour of the German Protestants. 

Missions to Lapland warmly supported by Sweden and 
Denmark. 

# Sabbatarian Controversy in England. 



1631 



Collegiants, or Rhynsburgians, separatists from the 
Dutch Remonstrants (now extinct). 



"j" * Robert Browne, Independent. 



1632 



Gustavus defeats the Imperialists under Tilly at 
Leipsic. 

Magdeburg destroyed by the Roman Catholic forces 
under Tilly. 

Gustavus Adolphus, after his victory at Leipsic, restores 
the Evangelical worship, which had been interrupted in 
the South of Germany. 

Dominicans arrive in China. Displeased with the 
concessions made by the Jesuits to heathen superstition. 
Rise of the controversy between the two parties in that 
country. 

Remonstrants begin to establish themselves in Holland. 

Conferences between divisions of the Lutheran and Re- 
formed Churches of Leipsic. 

End of the Catholic League. 



Order of Priests of the Missions, founded by Vincent 
de Paul in 1624, confirmed by the pope. (Home mission- 
aries of the Romish Church, charged especially with the 
care of the sick, both bodily and spiritual ; Lazarists.) 



Gustavus Adolphus defeats Wallenstein at Lutzen 
but dies in the arms of victory. Sweden continues th- 



Period.) to the present time. 397 

war on behalf of the Protestants, under the conduct of 
the Chancellor Oxenstiern. 



* In England, feoffees of impropriations exchequered, 
and the property forfeited to the crown. 



Union of the Mennonites at Dort. 



University of Dorpat founded (restored in 1802). 



Assassination of Wallenstein. 



* The English Baptists, as a distinct church or deno- 
mination, now form a considerable body. 



* In England, the king (Charles I.) publishes his 
Book of Sports, a renewal of the proclamation of James 
concerning liberty and amusements on the Lord's 
day. 

Laud, now Archbishop of Canterbury, zealous in en- 
forcing the observance of ecclesiastical ceremonies, and 
in adding to their number. A few alterations made in 
the Book of Common Prayer during this reign ; but un- 
important. 

Edmund Richer, R. C. 



j" John Crell, a Socinian leader 



Jesuits expelled from Abyssinia. 



The plans of Cyril Lucaris, Patriarch of Constantinople, 
for an union of the Greek and Protestant Churches, are 
thwarted by the influence of Jesuits. 

# Synod of Dublin. 
Flourishing period of the Reformed Church in France. 



1/ 



398 from the reformation (Seventh 

Grounds of the Syncretistic Controversy. — Calixtus, 
Professor of Divinity at Helmstadt, maintains that the con- 
sent of catholic antiquity, i. e. the agreement of the Primi- 
tive Church during the first five centuries, ought to be 
regarded as a secondary rule of faith, subordinate only to 
the Holy Scriptures. He begins to be suspected of a 
leaning towards the Romish doctrine of Tradition. 



1634 Order of the Sisters of Charity founded. 



1635 University of Tyrnau founded (removed to Pest in 

1777). 
1686 University of Utrecht founded. 



1637 Ferdinand III. Emperor of Germany. 



*• Repeated severities in England, with a view to up- 
hold the authority of the Church and court, produce great 
dissatisfaction and disgust. 

* Charles endeavours to force a new liturgy upon the 
Church of Scotland. Great opposition, and popular 
tumults. 



t * Nicholas Ferrar. * John Gerhard, L. 



1638 Cyril Lucaris put to death. 

# Scotland. — General Assembly at Glasgow. Dissolved 
by the king's commissioner, but continues its sittings, and 
rescinds all that had been established since 1605, namely, 
Episcopacy, the Articles of Perth, the Canons, and the 
Liturgy. The Covenant signed in Edinburgh. Civil 
war. The king obliged to make peace. 



The Convent of Port Royal in great repute. Many 
religious and learned men settle near it, and devote them- 
selves to a life of literary and religious pursuits, as lay- 
brethren. It becomes a nursery of Jansenist or Anti- 
jesuit principles. 



Period.) to the present time. 399 



1638 



Some Socinian students at Racow having insulted the 
Roman Catholics in the public exercise of their religion, 
the latter cause their places of worship to be shut up, 
their press stopped, and their schools closed. 



| Cornelius Jansenius, R. C. 



Rise of the Syncretistic Controversy in the Lutheran 
Church. Busher publishes an attack upon Calixtus, as a 
secret papist. 

Dispute between the Pope and John IV. of Portugal ; 
the former refuses to confirm the bishops appointed by 
the king. 

* The Long Parliament of England meets. 



# In England, the Convocation frames violent canons, 
under Laud, including that enjoining the Et caetera oath 
against innovation. There were now three principal 
parties in England with reference to Church matters : — 
1. The high episcopalians. 2. The moderate episcopa- 
lians. 3. The anti-episcopalians, or presbyterians. The 
extreme measures of Laud contribute to increase the 
ranks of the latter. The Long Parliament makes various 
attacks upon the Church. 

* Convocation directs that every preacher shall enforce 
in his sermons, twice a year, conformity to the rites and 
ceremonies of the Established Church. 



This year was published the celebrated posthumous 
work of Jansenius, entitled Augustinus, seu Doctrina 
Augustini de Humanae Naturae Sanitate, iEgritudine, 
Medicina, adversus Pelagianos et Massilienses. 

The Jansenist Controversy, henceforth properly so called, 
acquires fresh life and bitterness by the publication of 
this work. The Jesuits make a violent attack upon the 
book. 



400 from the reformation {Seventh 

lt)40 University of Abo in Finland. 



Dutch missionaries labour during this century in Brazil, 
and in the East Indies, especially in Ceylon. 



1641 * Execution of the Earl of Strafford. 



* Massacre of Protestants in Ireland. 
* Protest of the English bishops against the proceed- 
ings of Parliament. The bishops sent to the Tower on 
a charge of high treason. Episcopacy overthrown. Arch- 
bishop Usher proposes a plan for combining Episcopacy 
with the Presbytery. 

Baxter lectures at Kidderminster. 



H. Grotius, Annotationes in Vetere et Novo Testa- 
mento. 

| Francis Gomarus, R. 



1642 * August 25.- — Commencement of the English rebellion 
and civil war. The king's standard raised at Notting- 
ham. October 23. — Battle of Edgehill. Head-quarters of 
the Royalists at Oxford. Battle of Brentford. 



* The English bishops deprived of their votes and of 
their property. The Councils of Star Chamber and Ec- 
clesiastical Commission suppressed. 



The pope publishes a bull, repeating his predecessor's 
prohibition concerning the Jansenist Controversy, and con- 
taining orders for the suppression of the work of Jansenius, 
and all defences of the same. Notwithstanding this, a large 
and influential party of divines in France undertake a de- 
fence of the opinions of Augustin and Jansenius (Ant. 
Arnauld). 



Period.) to the present time. 401 

f Henry Hoepper, L. 



Louis XIV. King of France. 
* English Civil War. Parliament take Reading. Hop- 
ton takes Bristol. The king besieges Gloucester : siege 
raised. Battle of Newbury. The king retires upon 
Oxford. 



Orthodox Confession or the Greek Church, 
drawn up by Peter Mogelas, Metropolitan of Kiev, re- 
ceived by the Church at Constantinople, and subscribed 
by the patriarchs of Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, 
Jerusalem, and Moscow. 

* In England, Assembly of Divines nominated by Par- 
liament met at Westminster. The solemn league and 
covenant taken by the Parliament, having been forced 
upon them by the Scotch. 

The Assembly of Divines consisted chiefly of Presby- 
terians, with some Episcopalians, and a few Independents. 
The works published by the assembly were, a Directory 
for Worship and Ordination, a Confession of Faith, and 
two Catechisms, the larger and the shorter. 



Syncretistic Controversy. — Conrad Horneius, a friend of 
Calixtus, affirms the necessity of good works to salvation. 
* Antinomian Controversy in England (Crisp's works). 



The number of Holy Days abridged by a papal bull. 
" Acta Sanctorum " begun at Antwerp by the Jesuits 
Bolland, Henschen, and Papebroch, continued by others. 
t Nich. Hunnius, L. "j" John Uytenbogaert, R. 



1644 * English Civil War. — Battle of Marston Moor. Sur- 
render of York. Defeat of the Earl of Essex. Second 
battle of Newbury. 



Dionysius Petavius (Theologica Dogmata), 
n T) 



402 from the reformation (Seventh 

1644 t * William Chillingworth. | Henry Alting, R. 
"j* Simon Episcopius, R. 

1645 Prince of Conde and Marshal Turenne defeat the Im- 
perialists at Nordlingen. 

# English Civil War. — Battle of Naseby. 



Conference at Thorn, between the Polish Roman 
Catholics and Dissidents; without effect. 

* Laud beheaded. The Directory introduced. 

N.B. The Presbytery was established only in London 
and Lancashire, and was always subject to Parliament. 
The power of the Presbyterians was quickly superseded 
by that of the Independents. 



1646 



The Syncretistic Controversy receives a fresh impulse in 
consequence of some expressions of Calixtus at Thorn, in 
which he is thought to favour the doctrines of the Re- 
formed or Calvinistic Church rather than those of the 
Evangelical or Lutheran. 

The Lutheran Church gradually forms itself into two 
parties, violently opposed to each other, namely, on the 
one hand, Calixtus and his followers, chiefly at Helmstadt 
and Konigsberg ; and, on the other, the divines of the Elec- 
torate of Saxony, under the lead of Hulsemann of Leipsic, 
Weller of Dresden, and the celebrated Abraham Calov of 
Wittemberg. 

John Muraeus and Salomon Glassius endeavour to 
reconcile conflicting opinions. 



# Anabaptists ; Antinomians ; Familists ; Fifth Mo- 
narchy Men ; in England. 



f Matthew Hoe, L. * Hugo Grotius, R. 



* English Civil War. — The king surrenders to the 
Parliament. 






Period.) to the present time. 403 

1646 The Christians of St. Thomas, on the coast of Malabar, 
renounce their connection with the Romish Church. 

* Confession of Faith of seven Baptist churches in 
London. 



# English Civil War. — The king seized by Joyce. His 
escape from Hampton Court. Imprisonment in Caris- 
brook Castle. R 

* The Westminster Confession approved by the General 
Assembly of the Kirk of Scotland (ratified by an act of 
the Scottish Parliament in 1649). 



* George Fox begins to preach. 



University of Bamberg founded. 



Philip IV. recognises the Independence of the Nether- ^ 
lands. 

Peace of Westphalia, 
by which the German Protestants are confirmed in the 
rights ceded to them by the religious peace of Augsburg, 
which are declared to extend alike to the Reformed and 
Lutheran Churches ; and all things placed upon the foot- 
ing of the year 1624, with respect to the possessions of 
Protestant princes. Edict of Restitution revoked. End of 
the Thirty Years' War. 

The pope issues a bull declaring the provisions of this 
treaty null and void ; but his attempts against it prove 
abortive. 



University of Harderuck founded. 
Leo Allatius, De Ecclesiae Occidentalis et Orientalis 
Perpetua Consensione. 

\ John Quistorp, L. 
j* * Lord Herbert, of Cherbury, a deistical writer. 



* Charles I. King of England, beheaded. 
(# Interregnum and Usurpation.) 



d d 2 



404 



FROM THE REFORMATION 



(Seventh 



1649 



v 



1650 



* In England, the Parliament ejects many Presbyterian 
ministers by imposing the Engagement. Bill passed, " For 
the Propagation of the Gospel in Wales." 



1651 



* Society of Friends^ commonly called Quakers, founded 
by George Fox. 

Fox imprisoned this year at Nottingham. 



| Frederick Spanheim, R. f G. J. Vossius, R. f Stephen 
Bauny, a Jesuit. 

Jansenist Controversy. 
The Jesuits having selected from the works of Janse- 
nius six propositions, which they declare to be heretical, 
a body of French bishops, eighty-five in number, petition 
the pope this year to define the sense in which those 
propositions may really be regarded as such. Eleven 
other bishops protest against this appeal, or reference, 
as contrary to the liberties of the Gallican Church. The 
pope contents himself with publishing a bull (in 1653) 
simply condemning five of the six propositions. The 
Jansenists continued to maintain their tenets, on the 
ground that the propositions were not contained in the 
works of Jansenius in the sense in which they were con- 
demned by the pope. 

L. Capellus ; Critica Sacra. 
(| Rene des Cartes.) 



The Cartesian philosophy begins to exercise a deteriorating 
influence on the doctrine of the Fleformed Church, 



Christianity is now entirely banished from Japan. 



* English Civil War. — Charles II. crowned at Scone. 
Battle of Worcester. 



t Andrew Rivet, R. f J. Sirmond, R. C. 



Period.) to the present time. 1 405 

1652 Capuchin Mission to the interior of Africa. 



The landgrave "of Hesse Rheinfels conforms to the 
Romish Church. 



# Henry Hammond defends the Anglican doctrine of 
Episcopacy against Blondel. 



f Dionysius Petavius (Denys Petau) R. C. 



The Lutheran churches are now distinguished by 
barren orthodoxy and futile controversies. Powerful ex- 
hibitions and applications of the doctrines and duties of 
Christianity, by which the era immediately succeeding 
the Reformation was characterised, have given place to 
cold or captious accuracy of statement, and jealous de- 
fence of received opinions. 

* Controversies relating to Baptism active in England 
from 1649 to 167?. 



The worship of the Virgin Mary cultivated with pecu- 
liar zeal in Spain. 



1 653 * Oliver Cromwell, Protector of England, Scotland, and 
Ireland. 



During the Usurpation, toleration is not extended to 
Roman Catholics and Jews. 



Buxtorf's Anticritica ; against Capellus. 
f Claud. Salmasius (Saumaise), R. 



1654 Charles X. (Gustavus) King of Sweden. 



# In England, the Committee of Triers appointed. 
(Church government had hitherto been carried on by 
the Assembly under Parliament.) 



d d 3 



406 from the reformation (Seventh 

1654 * First Meeting of Quakers in London. 



| J. V. Andreas, L. 



Struggles between the kings of Portugal and the popes 
from 1640 to 1670. 



1655 The form of Presbyterian Church government and 
ordination (agreed upon by the Westminster Assembly in 
1649) ratified by the General Assembly of the Kirk of 
Scotland. 



Abraham Calov, Systema Locorum Theologicorum. 

University of Duisburg founded. 
[ * James Usher, Archbishop of Armagh. j" David 
Blondel, R. 



Syncretistic Controversy. — Consensus Repetitus Fidei 
vere Lutheranas prepared, as an antidote against the 
opinions of Calixtus ; published in 1664. (1656. f G. 
Calixtus ; controversy continued by his son, Frederic 
Calixtus.) Ernest, Duke of Saxe-Gotha, endeavours to 
effect a pacification, supported by Seckendorf. He lends 
his countenance to a plan for establishing a Collegium 
Jrenicum or Pacificatorium. 
1656 Jansenist Controversy. — Machinations of Jesuits and 
Dominicans against the Jansenists. Arnauld expelled 
from the Sorbonne. Blaise Pascal begins to attack the 
Jesuits. (False moral principles held by the Jesuits in 
general — that a good intention makes a good act; mental 
reservation ; distinction between philosophical and actual 
(or theological) sin; probabilism; efficacy of slight or 
even feigned repentance.) 

The pope (Alexander VII.) declares that the five 
condemned propositions are contained in the works of 
Jansenius, and in the sense affixed to them when so con- 
demned. The court of France unites with the pope 
against the Jansenists. 



Period.) to the present time. 407 



1656 



Lettres Provinciates of Blaise Pascal, under the name 
of Louis de Montalte. 

f * Joseph Hall 5 Bishop of Norwich. * George Calix- 
tus, L. | J. Feuerborn, L. f Salomon Glass, L. 



# During the Usurpation, several individuals were 
punished for heterodoxy in England. 



Leopold I. Emperor of Germany* 
Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg, independent. 



In France, the Jesuits work upon the mind of Louis X., 
to the disadvantage of the Reformed Church in that 
country. 

The Patriarchate of Moscow independent of Constan- 
tinople. 

f J. B. Carpzov, L. 

* Declaration of the Faith and Order owned and prac- 
tised in the Congregational Churches in England ; agreed 
upon and consented to by their elders and messengers in 
their meeting at the Savoy. 



Edict against the Socinians in Poland, as being not 
dissidentes de religione, but dissidentes a religione. All 
Socinians obliged to quit Poland within three years. 
Some found refuge in Prussia; others associated with the 
Arminians in the Low Countries; but, for the most part, 
they betook themselves to the Unitarians of Transyl- 
vania, who gave them a friendly reception, and with 
whom they became incorporated. 



| P. Du Moulin, R. 

D D 4 



408 TitoM the reformation (Seventh 

Controversy of Coccelus with Maresius and Voetius 
respecting the Sabbath . 



* Anglo-American missionaries propagate the Gospel 
among the North American Indians. John Elliot. 



1659 t J- G. Dorsch, L. "f Curcellseus, a Remonstrant. 



1660 # Charles II. King of England (Restoration), 



$■ Episcopacy restored in England. — Petition of the 
Nonconformists. Answer of the bishops. Declaration 
of the kinff. 



Critici Sacri. 
"\ * Henry Hammond. f Vincent de Paul, R. C. 



l66l * The English Convocation grants a subsidy to the 
king. The last tax of this nature paid by the English 
clergy. Convocation henceforth exists merely in name 
and form. 

Conference at Cassel, for union of Reformed and Evan- 
gelical Churches ; ineffectual. It was, however, agreed 
that the differences between the two churches do not 
affect the foundation of faith. 

* Savoy Conference. Corporation Act. 



Among the Dutch Remonstrants (followers of Grotius 
and Episcopius) the distinctive doctrines of Christianity 
gradually disappear. 



* English Book of Common Prayer. — Last revision of 
the Liturgy, by Convocation. After some slight alterations 
by Parliament, it was legally authorized, August 24. 1662. 
And thus the Book of Common Prayer, as we now use it, 
was complete. 



Period.) to the present time. 409 

1661 t * Bryan Walton, Bishop of Chester, f J. Hulse- 
mann, L. "j" J, C. Daunhauer, L. 



j* Jonas Schlichting, a Socinian leader. 



Dispute between the pope and the king of France. 
The pope sues for pardon. 

*■ Act of Uniformity. — Two thousand nonconforming 
ministers ejected on the 24th of August. Great severity 
and injustice on the part of the ruling powers. Calamy 
and Baxter imprisoned. 

* Episcopacy restored in Scotland. 



t J. Weller, L. | Blaise Pascal, R. C. j Peter de 
Marca, R. C. 

f * John Biddle, an English Arian. 



Louis XIV. establishes a missionary college in Paris, 
especially for China. 

# Select Vestry Act. 



T Theoph. Raynaud, R. C. 



The Reformed Church in France, for the most part, 
adheres to the doctrines of Calvin respecting Predestina- 
tion, &c. But some divines of that communion (e.g. 
Amyraldus, and others) had mitigated the doctrine, by 
drawing a distinction between general and special grace. 
Their positions were opposed by Spanheim ; but the Re- 
formed Synods of Alencon (in 1637) and Charenton (in 
1644, 1645) refused to condemn them as at variance 
with the received doctrines. Their tenets (imiversal- 
ismus hypotheticus) were subsequently adopted by many 
members of that Church. 



41° from the reformation (Seventh 

1664 * First Conventicle Act. 



De Ranee founds the order of La Trappe. 



Further divisions among the Waterland Mennonites ; re- 
lating primarily to the doctrine of absolute predestina- 
tion. The one party, called Apostoolians, Sonnists, or 
Mennonite Baptists ; the other, Galenists, Lammists, or 
Remonstrant Baptists. 

f * Samuel Fisher, a Quaker. 
* The Society of Friends had lately suffered great 
persecution. Its members were exposed to peculiar suf- 
ferings under the Conventicle Act. 



t John Buxtorf, R. f Moses Amyraldus, R. 



^^ 5 Charles II. King of Spain. 



#■ The Plague breaks out in London. 



Consensus Repetitus Fidei Vere Lutheranae. 
* Five Mile Act. 



Jansenist Controversy. — The pope commands all the 
French clergy formally to abjure " the heresy of Jansenius," 
and to subscribe to the assertion, that the five propositions 
are contained in the works of Jansenius in the heretical 
sense. Many of the clergy protest against recognising 
the pope's infallibility as to matters of fact, while they de- 
clare themselves ready to yield to it in matters of faith. 
Vehement disputes ensue. Attempt to obtain the signa- 
tures of the Nuns of Port Royal by compulsion. 



Violent persecution of the Waldenses. 



University of Kiel founded. 



Period.) to the present time. 411 

1666 # The Fire of London. 



P. J. Spener, Senior of the Ministry at Frankfort-on- 
the-Maine. He makes efforts to restore the study and 
practice of scriptural theology in the Lutheran Church. 



* William Penn joins the Society of Friends. 
A large sect separates from the Russian (Greek) Church, 
chiefly on liturgical grounds ; which afterwards subdivides 
itself into a number of smaller sects (Raskolnites, — 
Separatists). They are at first exposed to violent perse- 
cution. 



1667 The pope sends vicars into the territories of John Fre- 
derick, Duke of Brunswick, who had conformed to the 
Romish Church. 



Controversy between Claude and Nicole respecting the 
doctrine of the Eucharist. 



A French translation of the Scriptures by the scholars 
of Port Royal (Translation of Mons) published at Amster- 
dam. Condemned by the pope. 

I Samuel Bochart, R. "f J. H. Hottinger, R. 



1 668 Triple alliance between England, Holland, and Sweden, 



against Louis XIV. of France. 



Jansenist Controversy. — The new pope (Clement IX.), 
by allowing an ambiguity of expression, persuades the 
greater part of the Jansenists to subscribe the abjuration. 



# William Penn, a prisoner in the Tower, writes his 
"No Cross, No Crown." 



University of Lund founded. 
i J. Hoornbeck, R. 



\S 



412 from the reformation (Seventh 

1669 In France, Louis XIV. begins to use efforts for in- 
ducing the Protestants in that country to conform to the 
Romish Church. Marshal Turenne unexpectedly con- 
forms. 

* About this time various proposals were made for the 
toleration and comprehension of English Nonconformists ; 
but without effect. 



Labadists at Amsterdam. 



t J. Cocceius, R. t H. Busenbaum, a Jesuit, j L eo 
Allatius, a Latinising writer of the Greek Church. 



I67O Treaty between the emperor, Spain, and Holland. 



The pope reconciled to Portugal. The king's nomi- 
nation to bishoprics confirmed. 



# Second Conventicle Act. 



t J. Daille, R. 



Quesnel's Annotations on the Gospels published. Also, 
Bossuet's Exposition de la Doctrine de l'Eglise Catho- 
lique sur les Matieres de Con tro verse. 



University of Urbino founded. 



1672 The emperor, Spain, Holland, and Brandenburg, de- 
clare war against France. 

Louis XIV. conquers the greater part of Holland. 
William, Stadtholder. 

# Corporation Act. (Ineffectual declaration of Tole- 
ration by Charles.) 

1673 * The Test Act. 



Period.) to the present time. 418 

1673 University of Inspruck founded. 



1674 Louis conquers Franche Comte. Victories of the 
Prince of Conde and Marshal Turenne in Germany and 
Flanders. 



t Cardinal Bona, 
t J. Labadie. 

Cocceian Controversy in the Reformed Church, concerning 
the principles of scriptural interpretation, and the doc- 
trine of the covenants. Typical and federal theology. 
This controversy continued to divide the Reformed Church 
during the remainder of this century. Subdivided into 
two sections, the strict (of Utrecht) and the moderate (of 
Leyden), the Anticocceians also (Voetians) were distin- 
guished into the old and modern. 
1675 Spener's " Pia Desideria." 



Attempts at effecting an union between German Pro 
testants and the Church of Rome, promoted by Spinola. 
Formula Consensus Helvetici. 



* Meeting for Sufferings, appointed by the Society of 
Friends. 



Michael Molinos publishes his " Spiritual Guide.' 
t * John Lightfoot, f Samuel Desmarets, R. 



I676 The new pope (Innocent XI.) soon became distinguished 
by his honest and zealous efforts for promoting the inter- 
ests of the Church (on papal principles), and for giving a 
wholesome correction to the teaching and morals of the 
clergy. At the same time, he strenuously maintained the 
supposed rights and honour of the Church against the 
claims of temporal potentates. 



414 FROM THE REFORMATION (Seventh 

I676 # Continued persecution of the Quakers in England. 
Division in the society. Barclay writes his Apology. 



I677 Spener publishes his " Spiritual Priesthood.'' 



Quakers endeavour to establish themselves in Holland 
and Germany. 

| Gilbert Voetius, R. 



(| Benedict Spinosa, a pantheist.) 



The Syncretistic Controversy gradually degenerates into 
a personal quarrel between the leaders of the opposite 
parties, and declines in general interest. 

In Switzerland, the strict Calvinistic doctrines respect- 
ing Predestination, &c. continue to maintain their ground, 
although not without opposition. 



Peace of Nimuegen, between France and Holland. 



Dispute of the pope with France respecting the ap- 
propriation of vacant bishoprics to the king (regale). 

* Plots for the re-establishment of Popery in England 
(Titus Oates). 

# Act against Roman Catholics, excluding them from 
both Houses of Parliament. 



t John Launoi, R. C. 



f Wissowatius, Socinian. 



1679 TJie Jansenist Controversy. — The pope (Innocent XI.) 
takes part in the argument of the Jansenists against the 
Jesuits. He published a bull this year condemning the 
Propositiones laxorum moralistarum, — for the most part, 
positions maintained by Jesuits). 



Period.) to the present time. 415 

1679 t * Henry Moore, f Francis Burmann, R. 1 James 
Alting, R. 

t # Thomas Hobbes, a deistical writer. 



t Antoinette Bourignon, pretender to inspiration, and 
celebrated propagator of mystico-theosophic doctrines in 
the Low Countries. 



1681 Persecution of the Reformed Church in France. 



f J. Musaeus, L. 



| Christopher Sand, Antitrinitarian. 



1682 A National Council of France^ 

convened by the king, at Paris, embodies certain proposi- 
tions restrictive of the papal authority in that country, 
which, in effect, had been held by a large portion of the 
Gallican clergy ever since the Council of Constance. 
Quatuor Propositiones Cleri Gallicani. 
These are, 1. That the power of the pope extends 
only to spiritual matters; and especially that the king 
cannot be deposed by the pope. 2. That the spiritual 
authority of the pope is subject to that of a general 



v/ 



1680 The pope is still engaged in a contest with the king of 
France, respecting the right of nomination to benefices 
during the vacancy of a bishopric. 

Bossuet, as a controversialist, endeavours to induce a re- 
union of Protestants with the Romish Church. 

J Duraeus (John Dury) ; who spent his life in endea- 
vouring to promote an union of the Protestant churches, \ 
on the ground of their agreement in the essential truths 
of Christianity. 

f * Earl of Rochester, f Martin Geier, L. 



416 from the reformation {Seventh 

168S council, according to the principles promulgated at Con- 
stance. 3. That the exercise of the papal power in 
judicial matters must be regulated by the ancient eccle- 
siastical laws. 4. That the pope possesses the power of 
deciding in matters of faith, but that his decisions are to 
be regarded as infallible only when confirmed by the 
voice of the whole church. — Bossuet writes in defence of 
these propositions. The pope declares the acts of this 
council null and void (see 1693). 



1683 



1684 



1685 



* Penn and his colony of Quakers found the State of 
Pennsylvania. 

Bossuet's Defensio Declarationis Celeberrimae quam de 
Potestate Ecclesiastica sanxit Clerus Gallicanus. 
Calov's Historia Syncretistica. 



John Sobiesky, King of Poland, defeats the Turks at 
Vienna. 

# English high churchmen proclaim the doctrine of 
passive obedience and non-resistance. The Oxford De- 
cree (July 21.) 

j* J. A. Schertzer, L. 
Last Edition of the Racovian Catechism. 



# In England, during the reign of Charles II., many 
thousand Protestant dissenters were thrown into prison, 
and subjected to other severe sufferings. 

The Church of Rome obtains ascendancy in the Pala- 



tinate. 



* James II. King of England. 



Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. 
The Reformed Church in France suffers increased per- 



Period,) to the present time. 417 

secution. Many members seek refuge in flight ; many 
others murdered ; churches destroyed. 

#■ In England, James endeavours to establish arbitrary 
power, and the Roman Catholic religion. He publishes 
a letter prohibiting the clergy from preaching on contro- 
versial subjects. 

* Several heads of colleges in Oxford declare them- 
selves Roman Catholics. 



In France, Fenelon labours zealously for the reduction of 
the Protestants to the Roman Catholic faith. 

# James establishes a court of ecclesiastical commission. 
Compton suspended. 

Massey, a Roman Catholic, appointed Dean of Christ 
Church, Oxford. 



Great influence of Spener in the Lutheran Church, in 
favour of Biblical Theology and Practical Religion, in oppo- 
sition to the cold, scholastic, polemico- orthodox divinity which 
had become prevalent. 



Hostile operations against the Waldenses, carrying to 
its height a cruel persecution. Extermination of the 
greater number (eleven thousand) ; the rest (three thou- 
sand) banished. 

Du Pin's Library of Ecclesiastical Writers. 
f Abraham Calov, L. f Louis Maimbourg, R. C. 



#■ James II. of England treacherously supports the 
cause of the Romish Church. The English Protestants 
dread the return of papal usurpation. 

Fresh quarrel between the Pope and Louis XIV. 
(Right of sanctuary in ambassador's house at Rome.) 



* James issues a Declaration of Liberty of Conscience, 
and endeavours to procure the repeal of penal laws 
against Nonconformists, with a view to facilitate the re-* 
establishment of the Roman Catholic religion. 

e e 



418 



FROM THE REFORMATION 



{Seventh 



1687 



1688 



./■ 



He issues a mandatory letter to the Fellows of Mag- 
dalen College in Oxford, enjoining them to elect a 
Roman Catholic as president. The Fellows resisted, 
and were afterwards ejected, together with Hough, 
whom they had appointed president. Cambridge also 
resisted an illegal act of royal interference concerning 
the conferring of a degree on a Roman Catholic, without 
taking the oaths. Governors of the Charter House refused 
to admit Andrew Popham on the same terms. 

The pope's nuncio publicly received at Windsor. 



The pope condemns, as heretical and blasphemous, 
sixty-eight propositions selected by the Inquisition from 
the writings of Molinos. The writer imprisoned for life. 

The party attached to the principles and writings of 
Molinos begin to be designated by the title of Quietists, 
as a term of reproach. 



* James II. compelled to resign the English crown, on 
account of his perfidy towards the national church. He 
had republished his iniquitous Declaration, with orders 
that it should be read in every parish church. Seven 
bishops, having petitioned against it, were committed to 
the Tower, on charge of a misdemeanour. They were 
tried and acquitted. James endeavoured to retrace his 
steps when it was too late. 

* THE GLORIOUS REVOLUTION 

places William and Mary upon the throne. 
Peter the Great, Emperor of Russia. 



# Eight bishops and four hundred other clergy, refus- 
ing to take the new oaths of supremacy and allegiance 
(Nonjurors) are ejected. 

* The liberties of the British Church are now, for a 
time at least, secured. 

The praise belongs to God, 
May he evermore defend us from false doctrine, super- 
stition, and ecclesiastical tyranny ! 



Period.) to the present time. 419 



1688 



1689 



William du Serre, a native of Dauphine, pretends to 
the possession of miraculous gifts. Rise of the Camisards. 



Bossuefs Histoire des Variations des Eglises Protestantes. 



f # John Pearson, Bishop of Chester, f * Ralph Cud- 
worth, "f J. A. Quenstedt, L. 



* Act of Toleration. Proposals for an alteration of 
the Liturgy, Canons, &c under royal commission, by 
Convocation ; defeated by the Lower House. 

* Episcopacy abolished in Scotland. The Presby- 
terian Church established by law. 

* Confession of Faith agreed upon by a general Assembly 
of the Calvinistic Baptists in London, 



Casimir Leszinski, burnt at Warsaw, as an atheist. 

Religious liberty in China. Permission to embrace 
Christianity. 

*• The Quakers now enjoy toleration in England and 
America. 

The banished Waldenses recover their native province. 



The Syncretistic Controversy terminates shortly after the 
death of Calov (1686) and Strauch (1690). 

Collegia Philobiblica, at Leipsic. 

(Aug. Herm. Franke.) 

Rise of the Pietistic Controversy. 



* English Book of Common Prayer. — An attempt was 
made, with the sanction of many bishops and eminent 
divines, to effect some useful alterations in the Book of 
Common Prayer, by an act of Convocation, under royal 
commission. But the attempt was overruled by the Lower 
House, assenting to the views of Dr. James, author of the 
e e 2 



420 from the reformation (Seventh 

Oxford Decree (1683) — - " Nolumus leges Anglige mu- 
tari ! " 



1690 * Battle of the Boyne, 



Disputes between the pope and the king of France 
continue. 



t * John Elliot, Apostle of the North American In- 
dians. 



j* # Robert Barclay, a Quaker (Apology), 



#• Antinomian Controversy in England revived. 



1691 * Renewed persecution of Protestants in Ireland. 



#■ Division of English Baptists, into Particular Baptists 
(Calvinistic), and General Baptists (Arminian). A third 
class, Sabbatarians, or Seventh-day Baptists, was also 
formed; — always small, — and now almost merged into 
the Particular Baptists. 

■*• Proposed union of the English Presbyterian and Con- 
gregational Churches. — Heads of agreement assented to 
by the united ministers in and about London, formerly 
called Presbyterian and Congregational. 



* At this time, the doctrinal views of the great body of 
Dissenters in England were in conformity with those of the 
Established Church. 

Spener at Berlin ; obnoxious to the " orthodox " Lu- 
theran divines on account of his Scriptural doctrines and 
practical Christianity. 

Zeal for the recovery of his Church from a barren and 
lifeless orthodoxy led him to undervalue the Lutheran 
confessions and symbolic books, or at least to speak lightly 
of their use and importance. It is probable that the im- 
pression which he effected in this way was greater than he 



Period,) to the present time. 421 



1691 



1692 



1693 



intended ; and that it was afterwards employed as an in- 
strument against the cause of scriptural truth itself. 



"f** George Fox, a Quaker. 



At this period there were Societies of Friends in Hol- 
land, Germany, and Prussia, but these were few and 
inconsiderable; while those in England and America 
were severely persecuted. 



t * Richard Baxter, f Samuel Basnage, R. 



#■ The Boyle Lectures begin. 



* Arthur Bury, an Arian. 



The popes having resolutely refused to fill up vacant 
bishoprics in France during the late disputes, and the 
French Church not having dared to supply deficiencies 
without his concurrence, the king was at length obliged 
to yield. The French clergy beg pardon of the pope 
for the acts of the Council of Paris (1682). But the 
principles declared on that occasion continued to influence 
a large portion of their body. 



Baillet writes against the worship of the Virgin. 
That superstition had been carried to a great height in 
Spain about this time. 

■*■ A Statement of Christian Doctrines issued on behalf of 
the Society of Friends. 



Quesnel's Practical Annotations on the New Testament 
completed. 

T Charles Blount, a deistical writer. 
e e 3 



422 from the reformation (Seventh 

1694 University of Halle founded. 

This new university soon becomes the cradle of Scriptural 
Theology in Germany, Spener, Franke, and others, labour 
with great success. 

The Lutheran Church now divides itself into two par- 
ties ; the one, having Halle for its centre, maintaining 
the reformed principles of Luther in spirit and practice, 
and endeavouring to spread a living, scriptural, practical 
Christianity ; the other, having the universities of the 
Electorate of Saxony (especially Wittemberg) for its 
strong hold, maintaining controversially " a stiff, orthodox, 
scholastic dogmatism." 

The scriptural doctrine of sanctification, and its in- 
separable connection with justification, had been generally 
neglected by the Lutheran divines before this period. 
Spener laboured to bring it into due prominence, but 
without falling into the error of confounding justification 
and sanctification with each other. 



t # John Tillotson, Archbishop of Canterbury. J Christ- 
ian Kortholt, L. "f Antony Arnauld, R. C. 



1695 * George Keith expelled from the Society of Friends. 



Madame Guyon and her confessor, Francis de la 
Combe, propagate the mystico-theosophic principles of 
Molinos in France and Switzerland. Protected by 
Fenelon, who became Archbishop of Cambray in 1695. 
After the submission of Fenelon to the decision of Rome, 
the views which he had advocated find little support, and 
gradually decline. 



t J. W. Baier, L. f Spinola, R. C. 
1696 | Benedict Pictet, R. (System of Theology). 

t Molinos, R, C. 



Period.) to the present time. 423 

1697 Charles XII. King of Sweden. 

Peace of Ryswick. 



t Sebastian Schmid, L. t J- H. Heidegger, R. 



Dutch missionaries begin to propagate the Gospel in 
Ceylon and Java with great success. 



* Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge founded. 
Orphan House at Halle founded. 



Fresh persecution of French Protestants. 



Controversy between Fenelon, Archbishop of Cambray, 
and Bossuet, Bishop of Meaux, concerning love to God, 
and various points involved in the mystic theology of 
Molinos and Guyon. 



t A. Pfeiffer, L. 



Frederick IV. King of Denmark (to 1730). 



The pope condemns, as dangerous and erroneous, 
twenty-eight propositions selected from Fenelon's Ex- 
plication des Maximes des Saintes sur la Vie Interieure. 
Fenelon submits. 



t J. B. Carpzov, L. 

During this century, the Church of Rome maintained 
missions in various parts of the world; especially in 
the East Indies ; Siam, Tonquin, and Cochin China ; 
Japan ; China ; Africa ; Portuguese, French, and Spanish 
America; particularly in Paraguay. 

The missionaries were, for the most part, members of 
monastic orders, but especially Jesuits : serious misunder- 

e e 4 



424 



FROM THE REFORMATION 



{Seventh 



standings and violent disputes often arose between the 
Jesuits and the members of other orders. 
1700 Missionary zeal now receives an impulse in the Evangelical 
(Lutheran) Church — a consequence of the improved tone of 
religious feeling to which, through divine blessing, the labours 
of Spener, Franke, and their friends, gave rise. 

Frederick IV. King of Denmark, resolves to establish a 
mission on the coast of Tranquebar, in the East Indies. 

There is, at this time, a Christian church in the palace 
of the Emperor of China, at Pekin. 



Philip V. King of Spain. 
War between Russia, Poland, Denmark, and Charles 
XII. of Sweden. 



The new pope, Clement XI. (1700-1721), encour- 
aged by the recent victory over the king and clergy of 
France, endeavours to establish the papal dominion in 
its former extent. Hence the period of his government 
included a series of struggles, especially with the emperor 
of Germany. 

Tlie emperor of Russia becomes head of the (National) 
Greek Church in his dominions. Tlie office of patriarch 
abolished. 

# The Baptists' Catechism. 



Academy at Berlin. 

The Camisards numerous in the Cevennes and Lower 
Languedoc. Pretensions to inspiration, the power of 
working miracles, prophesying, &c. 



1701 The emperor, England, Holland, Savoy, and Portugal, 
declare war against France and Spain. 

Frederick I. King of Prussia. 



Period.) to the present time. 425 

1701 * Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign 
Parts founded. 

# Toland writes against Christianity. 



Two Lutheran (titular) bishops appointed on occasion 
of the coronation of the king of Prussia. 



t * Richard Kidder, Bishop of Bath and Wells, f F. U. 
Calixtus, L. f F. Spanheim, R. 



Terministic Controversy in the Lutheran Church. 



1702 * Anne, Queen of Great Britain. 



University of Breslau founded. 
1703 | F. Bechman, L. 



The Prussian government begins to use efforts for ef- 
fecting an union between the Reformed and Evangelical 
Churches. 

Conference at Berlin ; fruitless. 



1704 



Battle of Blenheim. 
Stanislaus Lecksinsky, King of Poland. 



Disputes between the Jesuits and Dominicans in China 
now run very high. 



t J. Gousset, R. t H. Noris, R. C. f J. B. Bossuet, 
R. C. f Louis Bourdaloue. ("f * John Locke.) 



Hie School of Spener begins to degenerate ; pretension 
substituted for piety, affectation for humility, irregularity 
for zeal; pietism gradually identified with ignorance. — 
Enthusiastic, or otherwise erroneous, interpretation and 
adoption of Spener's positions. 



426 from the reformation (Seventh 

1704 Petersen, Dippel, and other fanatical teachers, make the 
writings of Pietists their starting-point. 

But some of the more genuine disciples of this school 
continue to propagate pure Christian doctrine and spiritual 
religion, with humility, faith, and zeal. 



Joseph I. Emperor of Germany. 

ZlEGENBALG AND PlUTSCHAU, 

Danish missionaries to the coast of Tranquebar; recom- 
mended to Frederick IV. by Franke of Halle. 



1705 Jansenist Controversy. — Clement XI. a zealous friend 
of the Jesuits, published a bull this year, declaring it 
not sufficient to observe an obedient silence upon the 
question, whether the five propositions were really con- 
tained in the works of Jansenius, — requiring the belief 
that he taught them in the heretical sense, — and demand- 
ing subscription with this understanding. Many of the 
Jansenists had already retired from the contest, and the 
bull created little excitement. Port Royal, however, still 
adheres to the Jansenist cause. 



f P. J. Spener, L. 



1*706 Peace between Sweden and Saxony. 

Battle of Ramillies. 



The Camisards destroyed, or expelled from their native 
country. Some of the surviving " prophets " come to 
England, where they obtain a few followers. Pretensions 
to inspiration or revelations, power of healing and working 
other miracles. The delusion soon passed away. 



f P. Mastricht, R. 
T * Peter Bayle, a sceptical writer. 



Period,) to the present time. 427 

1707 * Union of England and Scotland. 



J. A. Turretin, a reformed divine, maintains that the 
points of difference between the Evangelical and Reformed 
are not such as necessarily prevent an union of the two 
churches. 

t * Simon Patrick, t J. Mabillon, R. C. 



Violent dispute between the Pope and the Emperor 
Joseph, respecting the right to the Duchy of Parma. The 
pope and emperor are at variance also respecting the 
right claimed by the emperor of presenting once, during 
his reign, to a vacant place in each of the German eccle- 
siastical foundations; (Jus primarum precum). 



t Herman Witsius, R. 



About this time the Franciscans occupy more than 
7000 monasteries. 



Jansenist Controversy. — The pope (Clement XI.) pro- 
hibits the reading of Quesnel's Commentary on the New 
Testament, on account of its alleged errors, and its agree- 
ment with the Translation of Mons. Noailles, Archbishop 
of Paris and Cardinal, had signified his approbation of the 
book, after it had been submitted to the inspection of 
Bossuet, and received his favourable testimonial. The 
present prohibition was procured by the Jesuits, the 
enemies of Noailles. 

(The Convent of Port Royal des Champs destroyed 
by Louis XIV. at the instigation of the Jesuits, in 1709 
and 1710.) 



Charles XII. of Sweden, completely defeated by Peter 
the Great, at Pultowa. 



428 from the reformation (Seventh 

1709! The pope and the emperor come to terms. Emperor's 
right to the Duchy of Parma conceded, The jus prima- 
rum precum virtually established by the grant of a per- 
petual license for the exercise of it by the emperor. 



1710 



1711 



Protestants on the Continent now make various struggles 
for the preservation of their religious liberty from Romish 
aggression. 

Violent controversy in Germany between the (so- 
called) orthodox Lutheran divines and the theologians of 
Halle. Extravagancies of some fanatics employed as an 
argument against the pious theologians of Halle. Count 
Zinzendorf at Halle. 



f H. G. Masius, L. 



The reigning duke of Brunswick Wolfenbuttel con- 
forms to the Romish Church. 



T # George Bull, f Thomas Ittig, L. f J- Braun, R. 
t E. Flechier, R. C. 

J. G. Gichtel, a fanatic, at Amsterdam. 



#- Leibnitz endeavours to negotiate an union of the German 
Protestants with the Episcopal Church of England. 



* Act concerning Occasional Conformity repealed. 

* Severe laws against the Roman Catholics of Ireland 



were enacted during the reign of Anne. 



Jansenist Controversy. — The pope, urged by Louis XIV. 
at the instigation of his confessor Le Tellier, a Jesuit, 
publishes his famous constitution or bull Unigenitus, in 
which he strictly forbids the use of the Commentary of 
Quesnel, condemning as heretical 101 propositions se- 
lected from it, many of which contained the doctrines of 



Period.) to the present time. 429 

Scripture or Augustin, and thus, in fact, establishing 
Semipelagianism as the doctrine of the Romish Church. 
Cardinal Noailles refuses to accept the bull. Hence 
arise violent contentions in the French Church, which last 
until the death of Louis XIV. in 1715. 



1712 



* Whiston, Professor of Mathematics at Cambridge, 
avowing Arian principles, is deprived of his professorship, 
and expelled from the university. 

* Dr. Samuel Clarke advocates some Semiarian doc- 
trines about this time. He is opposed by Dr. Waterland. 



* Gale writes against Wall on Infant Baptism. 
t * J. E. Grabe. * Henry Dodwell. f N. Gurtler, R. 



Congress of Utrecht. Peace between England and 
France. 



The English Book of Common Prayer adopted by the 
Scottish Episcopalians, with the exception of the commu- 
nion office, which corresponds to that in the first liturgy 
of Edward VI. 



f J. F. Mayer, L. | Philip Limborch, R. f R. Simon, 
R.C. 



1713 Frederick William I. King of Prussia. 

Peace of Utrecht. 



Charles Alexander, Prince of Wurtemburg, conforms 
to the Romish Church. 



| * William Cave, t P. Jurieu, R. | S. Till, R. 



| * A. Ashley Cooper, Earl of Shaftesbury, a deistical 
writer. 



430 from the reformation (Seventh 

1714 * George I. King of Great Britain. 

* Many high churchmen in England refuse the oath of 
allegiance to the reigning House of Hanover (Nonjurors). 



t G. Arnold, L. 



1715 * Rebellion in favour of the English Pretender ; sup- 
pressed. 



1716 



1717 



Louis XV. King of France. 



Dispute between the pope and the duke of Savoy re- 
specting the " Sicilian Monarchy," or the rights of the 
duke touching ecclesiastical matters in Sicily. The pope 
obliged to yield. 

A bull against the Jesuits, sanctioning the performance 
of certain superstitious ceremonies by the Chinese Christ- 
ians. 



Persecution of Protestants in France, 
f # Gilbert Burnet, Bishop of Salisbury. | * T. Ten- 
nison, Archbishop of Canterbury, t G. Olearius, L. 
*f Francois de Salignac de la Motte Fenelon, R. C. 
(J Malebranche. ) 



Many (Jansenist) divines of the Church of France evince 
a desire to effect an union with the Church of England. 

# Number of Dissenting Congregations (i. e. Presby- 
terian, Independent, and Baptist) in England and Wales, 
1398. 

f J. Fecht, L. | Massuet, R. C. 
(f Leibnitz.) 



Correspondence between Louis Ellies Du Pin, Doctor of 
the Sorbonne, and Wake, Archbishop of Canterbury. 

Frederick Augustus II., Elector of Saxony, conforms to 
the Romish Church. 



Period.) to the present time. 431 

Oppression of the Dissidents in Poland. 



1717 Jansenist Controversy. — Noailles, with many of the French 
bishops and clergy, appeal from the pope and the bull 
Unigenitus to a general council. Thus the whole French 
(R. C.) Church was divided into two parties upon this 
question, namely, the Constitutionists or Acceptants, and 
the Appellants. In 1718 Clement pronounced sentence 
of excommunication against the latter ; for some time 
without any effect. 

* The Bangorian Controversy begins. Hoadley denies 
the divine institution of Episcopacy. 



University of Cervera founded. 

| * Peter Allix. 

j* Madame Guyon. 



171 8 Quadruple alliance between England, France, Austria, 
and Holland. 



Controversy between Ceillier and Barbeyrac respecting 
the morality of the Fathers. 



Beausobre and Lenfant's Translation of the New Tes- 
tament. 

T J. La Placette, R. | H. A. Roell, R. 
| # William Penn. 



I7I9 I Bartholomew Ziegenbalg. 



Consultation at Ratisbon concerning an union of the 
Lutheran and Reformed Churches. 



t J. H. Mai, L. t L. E. Du Pin, R. C. t Paschasius 
Quesnel, R. C. 

Toland advocates the system of Spinoza. 



432 from the reformation (Seventh 

1720 C. M. Pfaff, a Lutheran divine, and J. A. Turretin, 
Reformed, strongly recommended the union of their two 
churches. 



Jansenist Controversy. — Noailles consents to accept the 
Constitution conditionally. 



J. H. Michaelis (critical edition of the New Testament). 
t J. W. Jager, L. f E. Renaudot, R. C. 



17^1 John Egede goes to Greenland, where he labours for 
the conversion of the natives. 



Holy Legislative Synod at St. Petersburg ; a council 
appointed for governing the Russian Church. 



# Penal laws against Antitrinitarians in England. 



| A. Rechenberg, L. j* M. Leydekker, R. | P- D. Huet, 
R. C. J F. Pagi, R. C. 



1722 The progress of Christianity in China receives a check 
by the death of the Emperor Kang He. 



Some Moravian Brethren taken under the protection 
of Count Zinzendorf. 



f Gr. W. Molanus, L. f Campegius Vitringa, R. 



f * J. Toland, a deistical writer. 



1723 Frederick I. King of Sweden, sanctions compulsory 
measures for the propagation of Christianity in Lapland. 



Peter Francis Le Courayer, a Roman Catholic divine 
of Paris, publishes a dissertation in which he declares 



Period.) to the present time. 433 

ordination of English bishops valid, and maintains the 
continuance of the genuine apostolical succession of 
bishops in the Church of England (see 1728). 



Jansenist Controversy. — Louis XV. having attained his 
majority, the French government, influenced by Cardinal 
Fleury, begins to side with the pope in this controversy. 
The Appellants are henceforth oppressed and persecuted. 



T J. Basnage, R. f Claude Fleury, R, C. 



Catharine, Empress of Russia. 



Persecution of Protestants in France. 
Attempt to unite the Lutheran and Reformed Churches; 
without effect. 



Order of the Brethren of Christian Schools, in France, 
confirmed by the pope. 



Dunkers (Dippers), or Tumblers, a small society of 
German Baptists, founded by Conrad Peysel, near Phila- 
delphia. 

f* Humphrey Prideaux, Dean of Norwich. "["Benedict 
Pictet, R. "J" Natalis Alexander, R. C. 



Dispute of the Pope with John V. King of Portugal, 
respecting the papal nuncio (Vincenzio Bicchi). 



Benedict holds a Lateran Council "for the Reformation 
of the Church." The bull Unigenitus confirmed. 

Catharine, Empress of Russia, appropriates the fixed 
property of the Church to the use of the crown, and 
appoints stipends in exchange. 



Jubilee at Rome. 

F F 



434 from the reformation (Seventh 

17%5\ Remains of Augustin said to be discovered at Pavia. 



1726 



1727 



1728 



T Gamier, R. C. 



The king of Prussia appoints a " Vicarius Generalis 
in Spiritualibus," for his Roman Catholic subjects. 



T * Daniel Whitby. 

* George II. King of Great Britain. 
Peter II. Emperor of Russia. 



Church of the United Brethren at Bertholdsdorf (Herrn- 
hut), established under the auspices of Zinzendorf. (Union 
of the Lutheran, Reformed, and Moravian constitution 
and discipline.) 

*■ Irish Roman Catholics deprived of the right of voting 
at elections. 

* Hutchinsonians in England. 



J. F. Buddaeus ; Isagoge ad Theologiam Universam, 
J. Hutchinson ; Moses's Principia. 
J * James Abbadie. j* A. H. Franke, L. 



t J. W. Petersen, L. (Millenium, — Apocatastasis). 



Callenberg, Professor of Divinity at Halle, founds an 
institution for the conversion of the Jews and Moham- 
medans, which continued in operation until 1791. 



Le Courayer obliged to take refuge in England (Ox- 
ford). Here he maintains his former principles, and 
publishes his translation of Paul Sarpi's History of the 
Council of Trent. 



Jansenist Controversy, — Noailles accepts the Constitution 
unconditionally. (N. B. After his death in the following 



Period.) to the present time. 435 

year, a paper was found, in which he attributed his recan- 
tations, &c. to the weakness of old age.) 



17^8 



t J. Lenfant, R. 



Canonisation of Gregory VII. (who had already been 
honoured as a saint by some monastic orders), attempted 
by the pope ; but opposed by several of the courts of 
Europe, especially by France. 



# The Wesley s at Oxford. 



f * Samuel Clarke. | J - Fabricius, L. f G. Werns- 
dorf, L. f J. F. Buddaeus, L. f F. A. Lampe, R. f J. Har- 
duin, R. C. 

T #■ Antony Collins, a deistical writer. 



1780 Christian VI. King of Denmark. 

Anne Iwanowna, Empress of Russia. 



Jansenist Controversy. — The Constitution Unigenitus is 
registered by the Parliament of France as a national law. 
The party of the Appellants is still considerable ; they are 
now distinguished by peculiar observances of an ascetic 
and otherwise fanatical character. — Reported miracles at 
the grave of Francis of Paris (Abbe Paris), who died 
in 1727 (Convulsionnaires). 

Infidelity promoted in France by the rising fanaticism 
of the persecuted Jansenists, and, in general, by the con- 
troversy in which they took part and suffered. 

# Tindal writes against the Christian Religion. 



* Origin of the Glassites, or Sandemanians. 



J. Saurin, R. 

ff2 



436 



1731 



FROM THE REFORMATION 



(Seventh 



The Emperor Charles VI. enacts that all Hungarian 
Protestants, in entering upon office, shall take an oath, 
" by the Virgin Mary and all saints." 



* By a concordat, the Scotch episcopal clergy are left 
at liberty to use either the old communion office, or that 
of the Anglican Church. 



t J. Marc, R. 



* John Wesley and George Whitfield preach in various 
parts of England. 

Polish Dissidents excluded from office. 
#• Origin of the Scottish Secession Church. 



1732 



Order of the Liguorians, or Redemptorists, for the sup- 
port of the Roman Catholic faith and the instruction of 
youth, founded at Naples by Alfonso Maria de Liguori. 



T J. J. Breithaupt, L. 



1733 



Voltaire begins to scoff at Christianity. 

j" Thomas Woolston, Matthew Tindal, Mandeville, 
deistical writers. 

Three missionaries from the Church of the United 
Brethren land in Greenland. 



1734 



I J. C. Dippel, L., theosophist. 



Muratori writes against superstition in the worship of 
saints. 



1735 



# John Wesley in America. 



University of Gottingen founded. 



Period.) to the present time. 437 

t * William Derham. j" J. J. Rambach, L. t M. Le 
Quien, R. C. 

Frederick William L, King of Prussia, makes efforts for 
effecting an union between the Lutheran and Reformed 
Churches. 



Missions of the United Brethren to the West Indies, 
North American Indians, Esquimaux, Hottentots, and 
Surinam. 



The Danish Mission in Greenland flourishes, 
t J. A Fabricms, L. t J- Clericus (Le Clerc) R. f J. 
Fontanini, R. C. 

The Church of the United Brethren extends itself in 
Germany, Holland, England, Ireland, Denmark, Norway, 
Russia, North America. 

The constitution and discipline of this Church are now 
settled. Its officers are bishops, presbyters, deacons, dea- 
conesses, acolyths. 

Gradual amalgamation of theological parties in Ger- 
many, — speculative, orthodox, and practical. Correspond- 
ing loss of energy and vigilance. The way is being prepared 
for the introduction of 

A FALSE PHILOSOPHY, 

opposed to all former systems of theological doctrines. 



t * William Wake, Archbishop of Canterbury, j" J. A. 
Turretin, R. 

Warburton's Divine Legation of Moses. 
t G. G. Zeltner, L. | J. C. Wolf, L. \\. Beausobre, R. 



Whitfield in America. 



John Wesley forms a society in London, for the pro- 
motion of practical piety, retaining communion with the 
English Episcopal Church. Whitfield cooperates. 
First Methodist Society. 

f f 3 



438 
1739 

1740 



1741 



from the reformation {Seventh 

The University of Paris accepts the bull Unigenitus. 



t Edm. Martene, R. C. t Rureus, R. C. 



Maria Theresa, Empress of Germanyf. 

Frederick II. the Great, King of Prussia. 

Ivan, Emperor of Russia. 



Prosper Lambertini, Pope, under the title of Bene- 
dict XIV. (1740—1758). A lover of science, and pro- 
moter of comparatively moderate and liberal measures. 
Zealous in his efforts for the good education, and the 
general efficiency, of the clergy. 

He maintained, for the most part, a good understanding 
with the European governments : he was involved in dis- 
putes only with the Republic of Venice. 



t S. Werenfels, R. 

Wars of the Austrian Succession, 
Elizabeth, Empress of Russia. 



#• Wesley and Whitfield at the head of separate 
societies (Wesleyan and Whitfieldite Methodists). The 
doctrine of Absolute Predestination forms the ground 
of separation. 



j* Theophanes Procopowitz, Archbishop of Novogorod, 
a reformer of the Russian Church. 



t J. G. Reinbeck, L. | D- E. Jablonski, R. f B. Mont- 
faucon, R. C. 

(| J. G. Heineccius.) 



t * Thomas Morgan, a deistical writer. 



| * Thomas Emlyn, Unitarian. 



Period.) to the present time. 439 

1742 Charles VIL Emperor of Germany. 

France declares war against England, Austria, and 
Holland. 



The pope obliges all missionaries in China and 

Malabar to bind themselves by oath to abstain from 

accommodating the Christian religion to the customs 
and superstitions of the natives. 



A large portion of Silesia is now under the dominion 
of Prussia. The Protestants of Prussian Silesia recover 
their rights. 



S J 



t * Daniel Waterland. f Pet. Sabatier, R. C. f J. B. 
Massillon, R. C. 



The French government begins to relax its severity 
against Protestants in that country. 
1743 * Canons of the Scottish Episcopal Church. 



University of Erlangen founded. 
| E. Benzel, L. f Cardinal Fleury. 



1744 Failure of an attempt to unite the Greek Christians of 
Wallachia with the Church of Rome. 

In consequence of the Prussian conquests in Silesia, 
the Protestant churches of that country acquire liberty, 
and increase in number. 



1745 Francis I. (consort of Maria Theresa) Emperor of 
Germany. 

# Edward, the English Pretender, in Scotland and 



England. 



* Associate Synod of the Scottish Secession Church. 



Benedict XIV. sanctions the celebration of a new fes- 
tival ; — The Feast of the Seven Joys of the Virgin Mary. 

F F 4 



440 



1745 
1746 



S/ 



1747 



FROM THE REFORMATION 



[Seventh 



But this pontiff applied himself to the task of diminishing 
the number of festivals in the Church of Rome; not 
without opposition. 

t J. Lange, L. T E. S. Cyprian, L. 



Ferdinand IV. King of Spain. Frederick V. King of 
Denmark. 

* Defeat of the English Pretender at Culloden, 



Opposition to Christianity in China. 
Diderot propagates atheistic principles. 



#■ Powerful Preaching of Wesley and Whitfield 
in England. The number of itinerant and other 
preachers in connection with them increases. Fresh 
impulse given to practical religion in England. 

Frederick, Count Palatine, conforms to the Church of 
Rome. 



| B. W. Marpeger, L. 



William of Nassau, Prince of Orange, Stadtholder of 
Holland. 



In Hungary, a society is formed for the extermination 
of the Protestant religion. The government forbids Pro- 
testants to study in foreign parts, or to restore decayed 
churches, without special permission. 

* Division in the Scottish Secession Church. Burghers 
and Antiburghers. (Re-union in 1820.) 



| * John Potter, Archbishop of Canterbury, j" C. E. 
Weisman, L. 



f Samuel Crell, a Semisocinian. 



Period.) to the present time. 441 

I747 t * Thomas Chubb, a deistical writer. 



17^8 Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. 



*f # Isaac Watts, f A. Driessen, R. 



1749 The empress of Russia supports an attempt to propa- 
gate Christianity among the Siberians. 



#■ Hutchinsonian Controversy in England excites at- 
tention. 



Order of the Liguorians, or Redemptorists, confirmed 
by the pope. 

f V. E. Loscher, L. 



17*50 Dispute between the pope and the Republic of Venice 
respecting the Patriarchate of Aquileia. 



At this time, the number of Protestants in France is 
computed at two millions, notwithstanding all perse- 
cutions. 



The Jesuits had now become objects of suspicion to 
many European governments, on account of their inter- 
ference in state matters. By their ambition and avarice, 
their false principles of morals, and their practice of craft 
and fraudulent artifice, they had become odious to the 
people at large. Their disputes with the Jansenists had 
also contributed to their unpopularity. During the latter 
part of this century they were banished from various 
countries (Portugal, France, Spain, Naples, Parma). 



Swedenborgians. 
(1749 — 1756.) Swedenborg's Arcana Ccelestia pub- 
lished. 



442 from the reformation (Seventh 

1750 t * Edward Chandler, Bp. of Durham, f J- Eisner, R. 
t A. Schultens, R. | L - A. Muratori, R. C. 



1751 Augustus Frederick, King of Sweden. 

William V. Stadtholder of Holland. 



Wetstein's edition of the Greek Testament published, 
j" # Philip Doddridge. 
(| Christian Schottgen.) 



f # Lord H. Bolinbroke, a deistical writer. 



1752 The Danish Missions in the East Indies, from Halle, 
continue to be made eminently useful. Many pious mi- 
nisters, embued with the same spirit which had animated 
Spener and Franke, go forth to this field of labour. 
Among them is 

Christian Frederic Schwartz, 
whose missionary labours, which lasted during a period 
of forty-seven years, now begin. 



* Origin of the Relief Church, or Synod of Belief in 
Scotland. The principle of this church is to admit to 
communion Christians of every denomination, who, " as 
far as they can judge, have a competent measure of know- 
ledge, are soun d in the faith, and unblamable in their 
lives.' , 



Jansenist Controvej'sy.— Beaumont, Archbishop of Paris, 
followed herein by most other French bishops, ordained 
that no dying person should receive the eucharist, with- 
out producing a certificate from his confessor to the effect 
that he received the Constitution (Unigenitus). 

The Jansenist Controversy continued to divide the 
French Church until the period of the Revolution. 

Jansenist Controversy and Schism in Holland. Rise of 



Period.) to the present time. 443 

the Roman Catholic Jansenist churches in that country, 
which still subsist. 



1752 t* Thomas Stackhouse. t J- A. Bengel, L. 

I * William Whiston. 



I753 Papal Concordat with Spain. 



•j* # Joseph Butler, Bishop of Durham. | C. F. 
Bbrner, L. 

17^4 Inconsequence of violent opposition by the unconverted 
Chinese, the number of Christians in that empire, said to 
have amounted at one time to 800,000, is now reduced 
to 100,000. 

f J. J. Wetstein, R. 
(t Christian Wolf.) 

1755 The P°P e (Benedict XIV.) enters into the plan of the 
king of Portugal for the suppression of the Jesuits. 
Benedict died before he could effect his purpose. 

Frederick, hereditary Prince of Hesse Cassel, conforms 
to the Church of Rome. 



t # Thomas Wilson, Bishop of Sodor and Man. f S. 
Deyling, L. | J. L. Mosheim, L. j A. M. Quirini, R. C. 
University of Moscow founded. 



Confession of faith of the original or strict Mennonites. 



The foundation of Pseudo- rationalism begins to be laid 
in Germany ; — prevalence of the Leibnitzo- Wolfian Philo- 
sophy and its application to Theology by Baumgarten. 



The French philosophers attack Christianity. 



444 from the reformation (Seventh 

17*56 War declared between England and France. Begin- 
ning of the Seven Years' War. 



1757 t s - J - Baumgarten, L. | P- E - Jablonski, R. fA. 
Calmet, R. C. 

1758 The new pope (Clement XIII.) comes to terms with 
the Republic of Venice. 



The pope a friend and supporter of the Jesuits. A 
conspiracy against the life of the king of Portugal, dis- 
covered this year, was laid to the charge of that body. 
The pope refuses to accede to the king's request, that 
Jesuits should be put upon their trial; hereupon the 
pope's nuncio was sent out of Portugal. 



Declaration of the Company of Pastors at Geneva; 
containing a weak and insufficient refutation of the charge 
of Socinianism, which has now made great and desolating 
progress in the Reformed Church at Geneva. 



T •& Robert Clayton, Bishop of Clogher. t F. W. 
Kraft, L. | Prosper Lambertini (Pope Benedict XIV.). 



Swedenborg's De Ccelo et Inferno. 



I759 Charles III. King of Spain. 



Dictionnaire de l'Encyclopedie published. 
Kiermander, missionary at Calcutta. 
Dispute between the pope and the Republic of Genoa. 



t J. L. Frey, R. 



1760 * George III. King of Great Britain. 



(" Count Zinzendorf. 



Period.) to the present time. 445 

1760 t F. Wagner, L. t C. M. Pfaff, L. 



The pope supports the order of Jesuits against the 
courts of Portugal and France. 



1761 J- A. Ernesti, Institutio Interpretis Novi Testamenti. 
T #■ Benjamin Hoadley, Bp. of Winchester, "j" * Thomas 
Sherlock, Bp. of London. * "j* John Taylor, of Norwich. 
t J. P. Fresenius, L. f D. Passionei, R. C. f J- A. Orsi, 
R. C. t Le Ceillier, R. C. 



1762 Peter III. Emperor of Russia; afterwards Catharine II. 
Empress. 

The separatists from the Russian (Greek) Church ob- 
tain toleration. 



t D. Gerdes, R. f Prud - Marunus, R. C. 



1763 Treaty of Hubertsburg ; end of the Seven Years' War. 



Provincial Synod of Utrecht. 



Justinus Febronius (Hontheim), De Statu Ecclesiae et 
Legitima Potestate Romani Pontificis; — combating high 
notions of papal power, maintaining the supreme author- 
ity of general councils, and the independence of bishops, 
conceding to the Romish Church only an unimportant 
primacy, with a view to the union of Roman Catholic 
and Protestant Churches. — The anti-papal principles of 
the Council of Constance, maintained by this writer, gain 
great attention and acceptance in various countries. 



1764 Stanislaus Poniatowski, King of Poland. 



\S 



446 from the reformation (Seventh 

1764 T C. A. Henmann, L. f E. Pontoppidan, L. 



1765 Joseph II. Emperor of Germany 

(with Maria Theresa). 



The Portuguese government opposes itself, in a great 
measure, to the papal hierarchy. 



The pope isues a bull in commendation and support of 
the Jesuits. Publication of the bull in Portugal forbid- 
den. Jesuits expelled from that country. 



j" # George Benson. 



1766 Christian VII. King of Denmark. 



* Many churches of the Methodists in America. 



f * John Leland. t * Samuel Chandler. 



I767 T J. C. Edelmann, the first antichristian writer in Pro- 
testant Germany. 

-#■ Jesuits arrested in Spain, and removed to Italy. 



I J. G. Carpzov, L. 



The Dissidents in Poland endure continual grievances. 
1768 # First Baptist Church in Scotland. 

(The number of Scotch Baptist churches in 1836 was 

fi%-) 

Controversy respecting the active obedience of Christ. 



"f * Nathaniel Lardner. * # Thomas Seeker, Archbishop 
of Canterbury. 



Period.) to the present time. 447 

1769 Church of Rome. — Cardinal Ganganelli chosen pope 
(Clement XIV.), by the Antijesuit, or more liberal, 
party. He pursues the same line of policy as his prede- 
cessor, Benedict XIV. 



t E. A. Bertling, L. 

The pope becomes involved in a dispute with several 
of the courts of Europe, in consequence of his edict against 
the duke of Parma, who had taken measures for restricting 
the power and revenues of the clergy. 
1770 A pope's nuncio again received in Portugal. 

Annual publication of the bull In Ccena Domini dis- 
continued. 



* Shakers, or Shaking Quakers, a fanatical sect, attract 
attention in Lancashire. 



t * George Whitfield, f J. Brucker, L. f Urs. Duran- 
dus, R. C. 

1771 Gustavus III. King of Sweden. 



Semler gives rise to a controversy respecting the Canon of 
Scripture. 

Swedenborg publishes an exposition of his system, en- 
titled " True Christian Religion." 



t Helvetius — Marquis d'Argens — literary opponents 
of Christianity. 

1772 Partition of Poland by Austria, Russia, and Prussia. 



* A body of English clergy and laity petition Parlia- 
ment to abolish the practice of subscription to the Thirty- 
nine Articles. The measure not carried. 



t J. C. Kocher, L. 



448 from the reformation (Seventh 

1772 t Emanuel Swedenborg. 



1773 The pope, by concessions, conciliates the duke of Parma, 
and, soon after, all other governments which had opposed 
the measures of the Romish See. 



The order of Jesuits suppressed by Clement XIV. (by a 
bull, Dominus ac Redemptor noster), having become 
obnoxious at Rome by attempts to erect a politico-hier- 
archical system, independent of the Papacy. At the time 
of its suppression, this order possessed, in 39 provinces, 
24 professed houses, 669 colleges, 61 novitiate houses, 
176 seminaries, 335 residences, 273 missions, 22,589 
members. After this, the order continues to exist, es- 
pecially under the auspices of Russia and Prussia ; with 
hopes of a formal restoration. 



* Bereans, in Scotland. 



I774 Louis XVI. King of France. 

* Commencement of war between Great Britain and 
America. 

The French Protestants recover their rights. 



* Theophilus Lindsey quits the Church of England, 
and advocates Unitarian tenets. 

Settlements or Societies of Shakers (Shaking Quakers) 
established in America. 



* * Z. Pearce, Bishop of Rochester. T J. G. Tollner, L. 



1775 * David Williams endeavours to form a society or fra- 
ternity of Deists ; without any permanent result. 



The pope, who died this year, was probably poisoned 
by Exjesuits. Cardinal Braschi (Pius VI.) succeeds; a 
friend of the Jesuits. 



Period.) to the present time. 449 

177«5 # Some concessions made by the British Government 
to Roman Catholics. 



t C. A. Crusius, L. f F. E. Rambach, L. 



1776 * United States of America independent of Great 
Britain. 



At this time, the number of Dissenting Congregations 
in England (alone) is 1509. 

Many monasteries suppressed by the king of Sicily. 



f Breitinger, R. 



T # David Hume, a sceptical writer. 



I777 Maria I. Queen of Portugal. 



Upon the accession of Maria I. to the crown of Por- 
tugal, the anti-papal measures of that court cease. 



The Wolfenbuttel Fragments published by Lessing. 



t Zacharise, L. 



1778 France declares in favour of the United States of 
America. * War with Great Britain. 



Church of Rome. — The pope compels Justinus Fe- 
bronius (J. Nicholas von Hontheim ; see 1763) to retract 
his anti-papal propositions. 



In Germany, pseudo-philosophical (or rationalistic) 
principles are extensively applied to subjects of theology. 
The peculiar truths and doctrines of Christianity are 
gradually explained away, diluted, and annulled. The pi o- 

G G 



\S 



450 from the reformation (Seventh 

I gress of this malady is favoured by the circulation of the 
writings of English and French deists, by the influence 
of the king of Prussia, and by the weakness of German 
apologists. 

1778 t C. F. Schmidt, L. 



J Voltaire and Rousseau — opponents of Christianity 



1779 Spain acknowledges the United States of America, and 



declares war against Great Britain. 



#• By an act of Parliament, ministers of dissenting 
churches, scrupling to declare and subscribe assent to any 
of the Articles of the Church of England as required by 
the Act of Toleration, are allowed to make and subscribe, 
instead thereof, a declaration of Protestant belief. (Even 
this qualification was subsequently (1812) rendered unne- 
cessary.) 

I * W.Warburton, Bishop of Gloucester. | J. F. Cotta, L. 



I78O Death of the Empress Maria Theresa. 

Joseph, Emperor alone. 
(He endeavours to restrain the excessive power of the 
pope, and to remove ecclesiastical abuses. In his resist- 
ance to papal encroachment and usurpation, he enters 
upon an extensive plan of reform.) 



Rise of societies of Universalists in America; 



3781 Great Britain declares war against Holland. 



The emperor publishes an Edict of Toleration, and grants 
to the Protestants of Hungary their religious liberty, and 
restoration of their privileges. 

He forbids the publication of papal bulls affecting poli- 
tical matters in Germany, without the imperial sanction. 



Period.) to the present time. 451 

German bishops to exercise their original powers, and 
made independent of the pope by an oath to the civil 
ruler. Appeals to Rome forbidden. Monks made sub- 
ject to the diocesan bishops. The people permitted to 
read the Scriptures, The pope protests against these 
proceedings. 

1781 Among other reforms effected by the Emperor Joseph 
were included, — an improvement of the liturgy — a re- 
duction of the number of monks, and measures for the 
greater efficiency and usefulness of monastic institutions 
— the prohibition of superstitious pilgrimages and pro- 
cessions — and adoption of means for the improvement of 
the clergy. 

Images removed from the churches. 



to 1794. University of Stuttgart. 
t J. A. Ernesti, L. f E. H. D. Stosch, R. 



Various refutations of the Wolfenbuttel Fragments ap • 
pear in Germany. 

1782 The pope repairs to Vienna, where he is received with 
great respect by the people ; but fails in his attempt 
to divert the emperor from his plans of ecclesiastical 
reform. 

Sender, Professor of Divinity at Halle, promotes (per- 
haps beyond his intention) the progress of Rationalism 
in the Lutheran Church. 



t Danov, L. 



1^83 A society formed for the purpose of printing and cir- 



culating the works of Swedenborg. 



t * B. Kennicot. 



G G "J 



452 from the reformation (Seventh 

1783 t D'Alembert, an opponent of Christianity. 

1784 | c - w - F - Walcll > L - 



t * Anne Lee (Stanley), "Mother of the Elect," a 
fanatical pretender to inspiration. Her delusions excited 
some attention in England and America. She claimed 
power to work miracles, and to speak with strange 
tongues. 

| Diderot, an opponent of Christianity. 



1785 American Episcopal Church. — Dr. Seabury, Bishop of 
Connecticut, consecrated by five Scotch bishops. 



The religious liberty of the Russian (Greek) Raskol- 
nites, or Separatists, is formally recognised, under certain 
conditions. 

The sect of the Duchobortzi, in Russia, is now consi- 
derable. Distinguished from the orthodox or dominant 
church chiefly by a deeper acquaintance with Holy Scrip- 
ture, and a more simple and practical reception of its 
doctrines. 



Bahrdt exercises a pernicious influence in Germany. 



Moses Mendelsohn. 



1786 Frederick William II. King of Prussia. 



Congress at Ems. 
Four German archbishops assert their metropolitan rights 
against papal usurpation. 

The Council of Pistoja, under the influence of Scipio 
Ricci, Archbishop of that place, adopts the Four Articles 
of the Gallican Church ; and decrees various ecclesiastical 
improvements in opposition to the papal hierarchy. 



Period.) to the present time. 453 

1786 The Council of Pistoja asserts the Augustinian doctrine 
of grace. 

Joseph II. enjoins the use of the vernacular tongue in 
the celebration of divine worship. 



University of Bonn founded. 
t J. M. Gotze, L. t A. F. W. Sack, R. 



1787 Beginning of the French Revolution. Meeting of the 
Notables. 



The French Government again extends its protection 
to Protestants, by granting them civil rights. 



In a national council held at Florence, the decrees of 
the Council of Pistoja are annulled, and the Romish 
party retains the upper hand. The papal party finds 
means also to nullify the proceedings of the Congress 
at Ems, by exciting the jealousy of the German bishops 
against their superiors, the archbishops, who met on that 
occasion. 

An edict of Louis XVIII. (confirmed by Parliament 
in 1788), in favour of the French Protestants. 

Bishops of Philadelphia and New York consecrated in 
England. 

The Existence of God. — Kant and other philosophers 
endeavour to establish the knowledge of this fact by 
moral proofs, rejecting all others. Many divines, and 
others, are dissatisfied with this line of argument. 



The followers of Emanuel Swedenborg form them- 
selves into a community, under the title of " The Church 
of the New Jerusalem." The sect continues to spread 
in Sweden, France, Germany, Poland, and (especially) 



England. 



L^ 



G G 3 



454 from the reformation [Seventh 



1787 
1788 



1789 



1790 



t * R. Lowth, Bishop of London. j Herm. Venema, R. 



Charles IV. King of Spain. 



Some Roman Catholic missionaries labour in the East 
Indies during this century, apparently without beneficial 
results. 

Religious Edict of the king of Prussia, in support of 
orthodoxy according to the symbolical books. 

* Penal laws against Scotch Episcopalians repealed. 

* Calvinistic Methodists in Wales become numerous. 



t J. A. Cramer, L. t G. J. Zollikoffer, R. t Felbi- 
ger, R. C. 

The States General of France assemble. 
Revolt of the Netherlands. 



The influence of Kant's philosophy upon theology be- 
comes evident, especially in Germany. 



The number of festivals diminished in Spain. 



| * Philip Skelton. 



Leopold II. Emperor of Germany. 
Opposition to the Papacy decreased in Germany. 



The Reformation in Germany, attempted by Joseph II., 
lost itself in popular tumults, and was counteracted by 
papal machinations. It was finally crushed by the death 
of Joseph this year. 

Scipio Ricci, Archbishop of Pistoja and Prato, deposed. 
(In 1804 or 1805 he agreed to retract his principles; he 
died in 1810.) Reformation in Tuscany suppressed. 

The French Assembly adopts measures against the 



Period,) to the present time. 455 

(R. C.) Church in France, Sale of Church property. 
Monastic vows prohibited. 
1790 To the Methodists now belong, in England, 295 
preachers, 71,668 members; in America, 198 preachers, 
43,265 members. 



Summary of the History, Doctrine, and Discipline of 
Friends, written at the desire of the Meeting for Suffer- 
ings, and published this year. 



f J. N. von Hontheim, R. C. 



1791 Progress of the French Revolution. 



The French clergy almost unanimously refuse to take 
an oath of allegiance to the new Constitution : expelled 
from their benefices. 

* Society of United Irishmen established in Dublin. 

New measures for the support of Lutheran orthodoxy 
in Berlin. Commission of Examination. 



t *John Wesley, f J. S. Semler, L. | J- D. Michaelis, L, 
f J. B. Koppe, L. 



I792 Francis II. Emperor of Germany. 

Gustavus Adolphus IV. King of Sweden* 
War declared by France against Austria, 
National Convention of France. 



Church property confiscated in France, Belgium, and 
Savoy. 

| A. G. Spangenberg, Bishop of the Church of the 
United Brethren, a reformer or second founder of the 
society. 

* Baptist Missionary Society for the East and West 
Indies founded. 

g g 4 



456 from the reformation (Seventh 

1 792 # Johanna Southcott, a pretended prophetess, assumes 
the character of " The Woman in the Wilderness." 



J. F. Schleusner's Lexicon of the New Testament. 
t J. C. Doederlein, L. f C. F. Bahrdt, L. t S F. N. 
Morus, L. 

I793 Louis XVI. King of France, beheaded. 

Robespierre. — Reign of Terror. 
War declared by France against Great Britain, Spain, 
and Holland. 

Second partition of Poland by Austria, Russia, and 
Prussia. 

Temporary suppression of the public profession of Christi- 
anity in France. 

The Church of Notre Dame at Paris, and many others, 
converted into (so called) Temples of Reason. Advocates 
of Atheism and Deism persecute the professors of Christi- 
anity. 

The French Republic excommunicated. 



* Fresh concessions of the British Government to 
Roman Catholics. Right of voting at elections restored; 
disability to sit in Parliament and to hold civil offices 
continued. 



t Busching, L. f Gerber, R. C. 



In Germany, Henke describes Christian doctrine on 
rationalistic principles. Storr writes in greater conformity 
with Scripture. 

* Thomas Paine writes against Christianity. 



1794 T ne pope condemns eighty-five propositions from 
among the decrees of the Synod of Pistoja. 



Period.) to the present time. 457 

1794 f Ildef. Swartz, R. C. 



3795 Louis XVIII. assumes the title of king of France 
upon the death of the dauphin, or Louis XVII. 
Peace between France and Spain. 
The French Directory. 



# London Missionary Society formed. 



t S. Mursinna, R. C. 



* In England, the tenets of Socinus gradually prevail 
among the Presbyterian churches, which very gener- 
ally depart from the scriptural faith, as revived and 
expounded at the Reformation. But the members of these 
churches decline in number ; many of those who adhere 
to catholic doctrine being merged in Congregational or 
Baptist churches. The others are commonly designated 
by the title Unitarian. 



1796 Spain declares war against Great Britain. 

Buonaparte assumes the command of the army of Italy. 
Successes against the Austrians. 

Paul I. Emperor of Russia. 



In France, a Theophilanthropic Society (of Natural 
Religionists) is formed, in contradistinction to the Christ- 
ian Church, 

* Scotch Missionary Society founded. 
* Thirty -five missionaries sent by the London Mis- 
sionary Society to the South Sea Islands. 



T * James Fordyce. f J. Danzer, R. C. 



In Germany, J. W. Schmidt and C. F. Amnion apply 
the prevailing philosophy (Rationalism) to Christian doc- 
trine. 



458 



1797 



FROM THE REFORMATION 



(Seventh 



Peace of Campo Formio, between France and Austria. 
Frederick William III. King of Prussia. 



Dutch Missionary Society founded. 



* Rise of Congregationalists, or Independents, in Scot- 
land. 

* Formation of the Methodist New Connection in 
England. 



A community of French Protestants formed at Delft, 
entitled Christo Sacrum, with a view to the union of all 
Protestant churches, on the basis of one comprehensive 
confession of the fundamental articles of faith. 



t G. Less, L. 



1798 



The emperor of Russia, the king of Naples, and the 
Ottoman Porte, declare war against the French Govern- 
ment. 

Berth ier enters Rome. Abolishes the papal govern- 
ment. The pope made prisoner, and removed to Sienna. 



* Rebellion in Ireland, by disaffected Roman Catholics. 



t Christian Frederic Schwartz. 



1799 



Successes of Austria and Russia against France. 
Buonaparte, First Consul in France. 



\J 



In the theological schools of the Lutheran Church, Ration- 
alism, or pseudo-philosophy, is now generally erected upon the 
ruins of Christian doctrine. 

The Church of the United Brethren becomes instru- 
men tally a refuge and nursery of evangelical truth. 



This century has been distinguished by the publication 



Period.) to the present time. 459 

of many new translations of Scripture, — new editions and 
revisions of former translations, — and critical revisions 
of the original Hebrew and Greek text. 

Besides this, the style of the New Testament has been 
carefully compared with the works of Greek profane 
literature (Raphel) ; a more accurate acquaintance with 
Hebrew has been acquired by the cultivation of other 
Oriental languages, especially Arabic (Schultens) ; and fresh 
illustrations of the sacred text have been obtained by an 
increased knowledge of the geography and manners of 
Eastern nations. Numerous expositions of Scripture, 
differing in kind and value, have appeared. 



1800 Progress of French arms in Italy and Suabia. 

* Union of Great Britain and Ireland. 



* (English) Church Missionary Society established. 



Cardinal Chiaramonte elected pope (Pius VII.) ; dis- 
posed at first to adopt conciliatory and moderate mea- 
sures. 



The moderate Mennonites re-unite, the whole body 
having gradually become Antitrinitarian, and havingother- 
wise abandoned the peculiar doctrines of Christianity. 

The original or strict Mennonites retain their early 
tenets ; but their party is small. 



1801 Peace of Luneville, between Austria and France. 

Alexander I. Emperor of Russia. 
Armed Neutrality of Russia, Sweden, and Denmark. 



Union of Lutheran and Reformed Churches in the South 
of Russia. 

French Concordat with the pope. 

Roman Catholic religion restored in France. Gallican 
Church placed under the control of government. 

Synod of the Church of the United Brethren at 

Herrnhut. 

/ 



460 from the reformation (Seventh 

1801 * Rules of discipline of the Welsh Calvinistic Metho- 
dists. 

Severe oppression of Protestants in Hungary. 



f * Hugh Blair. | J - c - Lavater, R. 



1802 



Peace of Amiens. 
Buonaparte consul for life ; new constitution given to 
France. 



The French Theophilanthropic Society at an end. 
F. A. Chateaubriand writes in defence of the Christian 
Religion. 



o J 



Christo Sacrum. — This society, having increased in 
number and influence, is recognised by the Dutch govern- 
ment. A church consecrated this year. The society 
afterwards fails to attain its professed object; its doctrine 
gradually sinks more and more below the line of Scriptural 
truth ; and the whole institution appears likely to fall to 
the ground. 



t S. L. E. de Marees, R. f Alex. Geddes, R. C. 



1803 



War between Great Britain and France, and between 
Great Britain and Holland. 



* Methodist Churches. — Wesleyan Methodists now 
reckon, in Great Britain and foreign parts, — Old Con- 
nection, 819 preachers (besides supernumeraries), 224,774 
members ; New Connection, 29 preachers, 5280 mem- 
bers. 

In England, the Calvinistic Methodists form a portion 
of the Congregational churches. 



t J. G. Herder, L. 



Several universities founded in Russia. 



Period.) to the present time. 461 

1804 Buonaparte, Emperor of France, 

(crowned by the pope). 
Francis II. abandons the title of Emperor of Germany, 
and assumes that of Emperor of Austria. 



# The British and Foreign Bible Society founded. 



t J. G. Spalding, L. f W. A. Teller, L. | C. C. Storr, L. 
(| Immanuel Kant.) 



f # Joseph Priestley, Unitarian, 



1805 Alliance between Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and 
Sweden, against France. 

Treaty of Presburg, between France and Austria, after 
the battle of Austerlitz. 



1806 Erection of new kingdoms by Buonaparte. 

Confederation of the Rhine. 
Successes of France against Prussia. 



The pope now asserts bold hierarchical principles, and 
strenuously endeavours to maintain pontifical dignity and 
power. 

In China, where the (R. C.) Missionary Church had 
begun to revive, a violent opposition was excited this 
year, in consequence of a dispute among the missionaries. 



1807 Peace of Tilsit. Treaty of Fontainbleau. Conquest 
of Portugal by the French. 



t J. A. Nosselt, L. f J- F. Le Bret, L. T G. F. Seller, L. 



1808 Ferdinand VII. King of Spain. Buonaparte proclaims 
his brother Joseph king. War in Spain. 



Frederick V. King of Denmark. 



462 from the reformation (Seventh 

1808 * Society for the Conversion of the Jews established in 
London. 



* Unitarian tenets and societies make some progress in 
America and England. 



t J. M. Schrock, L. (Church History). 



1809 Charles XIII. King of Sweden. 

Treaty of Presburg, between France and Austria. 



The pope having failed to comply with the demands of 
Napoleon, is made prisoner and carried to Fontainbleau. 
The States of the Church are annexed to the French Em- 
pire, and Rome declared free. 

* (Roman) Catholic Association in Ireland, for obtain- 
ing removal of all civil disabilities. 



Universities of Helmstadt and Rinteln suppressed. 
t J. Eberhard, L. f G. S. Steinbart, L. | H. P. C. 
Henke, L. j Ziegler, L. 



1810 War in the Peninsula. 

Convocation of the Spanish Cortes. Bernadotte, Crown 
Prince of Sweden. 



Great American Missionary Society founded at Boston. 



# The Reformed Presbyterian Synod of Scotland. 
Union of Old Scotch Dissenters, adherents of the First 
Reformation in 1560. 



University of Berlin founded. 



1811 * George, Prince of Wales, Regent of Great Britain. 



*• New code of canons for the Scottish Episcopal 
Church. 



Period.) to the present time. 463 

* Additional " Regulations " of the Welsh Calvinistic 
Methodists. 



University of Christiana founded. 



* War between Great Britain and America. 
Alliance of Great Britain and Russia. War between 
Russia and France. 

Disasters of Buonaparte and the French in Russia. 



j" * Henry Martyn, Missionary in Persia and the East 
Indies. 

"f Platon, Archbishop of Moscow. 



University of Genoa founded. 
t J. J. Griesbach, L. f F. V. Reinhard, L. 



Note concerning Protestant Churches. 

Evangelical or Lutheran churches prevail in Saxony, 
Prussia, Wurtemburg, Hanover, Northern Germany, Den- 
mark, Sweden, Norway. There are also some in Holland, 
Russia, Poland, Hungary, and America. 

Reformed or Calvinian churches are found chiefly in 
Switzerland, Holland, the Palatinate, France, and Scot- 
land. 

Their points of difference relate chiefly to — the corporeal 
presence of Christ in the eucharist, the doctrine of pre- 
destination, church government and polity, and certain 
rites and ceremonies. These last-named differences exist 
principally with respect to — the use of images in churches, 
vestments of the clergy, private confession of sins, use of 
wafers in the eucharist, use of exorcism at baptism. 

About this time, debates are active in the Episcopal 
Church of England, on points connected with justification 
by faith, and other fundamental doctrines of the Gospel. 
A low and unworthy method of treating these great sub- 
jects had prevailed during the latter half of the preceding 
century; but when the question came to be fully dis- 
cussed, it appeared that the great majority of Anglican 



464 from the reformation {Seventh 

divines had not fallen into any irretrievable error ; and 
their confession of evangelical truth, in conformity with the 
unaltered standards of the national church, became more 
distinct and prevalent than it had been for some time past. 
The beginning of this century brought with it a revival 
of Christian doctrine from slumber, rather than a restor- 
ation from ruins. For this happy circumstance we are in- 
debted, — under the divine providence of the Great Head 
of the Church, — to the Articles and Homilies, which had 
been upheld in their integrity, and in their demand to 
the assent and consent of all officiating ministers of the 
Establishment, — and, more especially, to our invaluable 
Liturgy, a form of sound words, full of scriptural doctrine, 
breathing the spirit of genuine devotion, and eminently 
adapted to discharge the office of an unflinching witness 
of divine truth, and a faithful guide in the pursuit of 
holiness, peace, and eternal life. 
181*2 * Number of Dissenting Congregations in England and 
Wales. — In England, 252 Presbyterian, 799 Independ- 
ent, 532 Baptist; in Wales, 18 Presbyterian, 225 Inde- 
pendent, 176 Baptist. — Total 2002. 

* Congregational Union of Scotland, 
(Number of their churches in 1836, 91). 
# Methodist Churches. The Wesleyan Methodists now 
reckon in Great Britain and Foreign Parts, Old Con- 
nection, 1401 preachers (besides supernumeraries), 
405,073 members; New Connection, 4 preachers, 
8067 members. 

1813 Alliance of Russia and Prussia. 
Successes of the Allies against France. Battle of 

Leipsic. 

1814 Continued successes of the Allies. Triumphant entrance 
into Paris. Abdication of Buonaparte. Louis XVIII. 
enters Paris. 

Peace of Paris, between the Allies and France. 
Treaty of Ghent, between Great Britain and America. 



Period.) to the present time. 465 

1814 * Methodist Missionary Society completely organised. 
(The foundation of such a society may be considered as 
having been laid by John Wesley.) 

American Baptist Missionary Society founded. 



The pope recovers his liberty and the States of the 
Church. He carries into effect the principles of the 
papal hierarchy, as far as the circumstances of the times 
permit. Restores the order of Jesuits, and the Spanish 
Inquisition. 

The order of Jesuits restored by a bull (Sollicitudo 
Omnium) of Pius VII. From this time its influence pro- 
gressively increased, until it received a check by the 
second French Revolution (of 1830). 



T * Johanna Southcott. A small sect, professing to 
believe in her pretended inspiration, still survives. 

t W. Mlinscher, R. 



1815 Buonaparte lands in France from Elba. 

Renewal of war. Battle of Waterloo, and final over- 
throw of Buonaparte. 

Treaty of Paris. 
William I. King of the Netherlands. 



German League. 



Renewed persecution of (R. C.) Christians in China. 



(1814 — 1816.) A sanguinary persecution of French 
Protestants in the neighbourhood of Nismes. 

Roman Catholics in Switzerland commence efforts for 
the organisation of a national church, immediately sub- 
ject to the pope. 

* The bishopric of Calcutta erected, in connection with 
the English Episcopal Church. 



HIJ 



466 
1815 

y 1816 



1817 



FROM THE REFORMATION 



(Seventh 



Universities of Wittemberg and Halle united. 
| J. G. Rosen mtiller, L. 



Evangelical Missionary Society founded at Basle (es- 
pecially for Mohammedan countries, and Western Africa.) 



The king of Prussia nominates two titular bishops of 



the Evangelical Church of Prussia. 



1818 



Universities of Luthick and Ghent founded. 
t X F. C. Lbffler, L. t Meyer, L. 



United Missionary Society founded at New York. 



French Concordat. Bavarian Concordat. 

Ecclesiastical Constitution of Poland. 
Tercentenary of the Beginning of the Heformation. 
Union of the Lutheran and Reformed Churches 
in Prussia. 
The Prussian government begins to adopt active, and 
even oppressive, measures for the introduction of episco- 
pacy, and the use of a liturgy in the National Protestant 
Church. Several titular bishops now created. 



f F. S. G. Sack, R. | J. Jahn, R. C. 



Intolerant opposition made by the (Socinian) pastors 
of Geneva to the promulgation of Scriptural doctrine. 
Mournful prevalence of Infidelity at Geneva. 



Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle. 
Charles John, King of Sweden, 



Neapolitan Concordat. 
New constitution of the Lutheran churches in Hol- 
land. 



Period.) to the present time. 467 

1818 * The British Parliament grants one million pounds 
sterling for the building of churches and chapels. 



1819 American Methodist Missionary Society established. 

Auxiliary Missionary Societies at Frankfort, Bremen, 
Tubingen, and Dresden.' 

A large portion of the South Sea Islanders have now 
embraced Christianity. 



Jesuits expelled from Russia. 



University of Petersburg founded. 



1 820 * George IV. King of Great Britain. 

Revolutions in Europe. 



Missionary Society of the Protestant Episcopal Church 
of North America founded. 



# The United Associate Synod of the Secession Church 
in Scotland. 



The order of the Liguorians, or Redemptorists, founded 
in 1732, hitherto without much effect, rises to some im- 
portance at Vienna. 



t K. C. Tittman, L. 

In Germany, the credit of Rationalism is on the decline ; 
the evangelical theology and church awake from their 
slumber; fruits of the pious labours of Spener and 
Franke begin to re-appear ; learning and science again 
offer some homage to Scriptural truth and doctrine: (here 
appears ground for hope that the Holy Spirit of Truth 
graciously designs to make a gradual return to his almost 
deserted habitations — the Protestant churches of the 
Continent. 

II h 2 



468 from the reformation (Seventh 

1821 Charles X. King of France. 



Prussian Concordat. 



t Hanstein, L. 

* Since the commencement of this century, various sub- 
divisions of the Methodist Society, besides those already 
named, have taken place. The newly detached bodies 
are, — the Primitive Methodists, Bryanites, Indepen- 
dent Methodists, Wesleyan Protestant Methodists, and 
members of the Wesleyan Association. 



1822 * At the fifteenth conference of the members of the 
New Jerusalem Church (Swedenborgians) held at Man- 
chester this year, twenty-four congregations were repre- 
sented. The number of complete members amounted to 
nearly 3000. In America the members are estimated at 
4000. The peculiar tenets of this sect are a kind of phi- 
losophical fanaticism, rather than any modification of 
Christian doctrine. 



t J. F. Flatt, L. t Bertholdt, L. 



823 



Berlin Society for the Promotion of Evangelical Mis- 



sions among the Heathen founded. 



Union of Reformed and Lutheran Churches at Mar- 
purg. 

Cardinal della Genga elected pope (Leo XIL) ; a friend 
of science, but a strenuous asserter of papal claims. He 
condemns the Bible Society, restores the prisons of the 
Inquisition, and proclaims the Jubilee to be celebrated 
in 1825. 

* Methodist Churches. — The Wesleyan Methodists in 
Great Britain and Foreign Parts now include, Old 
Connection, 2000 preachers, 553,937 members ; New 
Connection, 48 preachers, 10,972 members. 



Period.) to the present time. 469 

* Confession of Faith of the Welsh Calvinistic 
Methodists. 

* Orange Lodges in Ireland. 

Conference at the Hague, between the Church of Utrecht 
and a papal nuncio, with a view to reconciliation ; in- 
effectual. 

(The Church of Utrecht refuses subscription to the 
condemnation of Jansenius by Alexander VII. ; rejects 
the bull Unigenitus ; and claims the privilege of electing 
its own bishops.) 

1824 Continued suppression of (R. C.) Christianity in China. 
At this period, reports reckon 47,000 native Christians, 
and three European priests, in that country. 

Paris Evangelical Missionary Society founded. 



Hanoverian Concordat. 
Edict of the Council of State in the Canton of Vaud 
prohibiting all assemblies for religious worship, except 
those of the national church, under penalties of fine and 
imprisonment. (Efforts of the Rationalists in support of 
their peculiar tenets.) 



In England some controversy prevails respecting the 
doctrine of Baptismal Regeneration. To a great extent, this 
is no more than a dispute about words. But there exists 
also a substantial difference of opinion, according as parties 
adopt or reject the Augustinian doctrine relating to Pre- 
destination and Grace. 

Differences and controversies relating to the said 
Augustinian tenets exist among members of the English 
National Church, as well as in the Church of Rome and 
other Christian communities. These differences may 
long continue, but without necessarily obscuring the 
essential doctrines of the Gospel ; and, it is to be hoped, 
without breach of Christian charity. 



1825 t St. Simon. 

H H 3 



^70 from the reformation {Seventh 

1825 Rise of a small sect of visionaries, or pretended pro- 
phets, in New York. 



f G. C. Knapp, L. f J. S. Vater, L. 



1826 American Inland Missionary Society founded at New 
York. 



The Roman Catholic clergy of Silesia petition for 
ecclesiastical reform. 



* Rise of the Irvingites, a small sect of fanatics, 
making pretensions to miraculous gifts, attached to Ed- 
ward Irving, a Scotch minister. 



t K. F. Staudlin, L. f Gabler, L. f Bengel, L. f Caj. 
Weiller, R. C. 

lo27 A Missionary Society founded at Lausanne. 



Concordat of the Province of the Upper Rhine. 



Destructive fire at Abo in Finland. The university 
transferred to Helsingfors. 

f J. G. Eickhorn, L. f Thadd. Dereser, R. C. f G. 
Keller, R. C. 

1828 * Repeal of the Test Act. 



General Conference of the ( Swedenborgian) New 
Church in Great Britain and Ireland. 

Catechism of the New Church. 



# University of London founded. 
T A. H. Niemeyer, L. f H. G. Tzschirner, L. 



•1829 Rhenish Missionary Society established. 



Period.) to the present time. 471 

1829 Castiglione elected pope (Pius VIII.). 



* Act for the Relief of Roman Catholics of Great 
Britain from Civil Disabilities (commonly called Roman 
Catholic Emancipation). 



# The English Quakers, following the example of a por- 
tion of their body in America (1828) repudiate the ideal- 
istic system of the majority of their brethren, who, in 
accordance with the teaching of Elias Hicks, virtually 
deny the deity of Christ, the inspiration of the Scriptures, 
and other positive doctrines of Christianity, and hold 
various opinions tending to a rationalistic nullification of 
the Gospel. Divisions and secessions. 

* The number of Friends in England, Wales, and Ire- 
land, is computed at about 30,000. In the United States 
of America, the Society reckons 220,000 members. 

St. Simonians in Paris. 



1830 * William IV. King of Great Britain. 

Revolution in France and Belgium. 
Louis Philippe, King of the French. 



In France, the Revolutionary Charter gives to Pro- 
testants equal rights and privileges with Roman Catholics. 



f F. Munter, L. 

Christian doctrine, as embodied in the Confession of 
Augsburg and other symbolical books, is now more gener- 
ally received by members of the Protestant churches in 
Germany and other parts of the Continent. But the 
amount of error which still remains in those communities 
is so great, and the inclination to false philosophy so 
strong, that there is some cause to fear lest the modern 
admixture of truth may not serve to strengthen and per- 
petuate false doctrines, which often retain a more per- 
manent hold upon men's minds when modified and 
h H 4 



472 



FROM THE REFORMATION 



{Seventh 



1831 



1832 



adorned, than when presented in all their baldness and 
deformity. 

The state of foreign churches, at this moment, calls for 
our Christian sympathy and prayers ; and ought to serve 
as a warning against the admission of false principles into 
our own creed; against the insidious influence of super- 
stition, will-worship, and deference to human authority 
on the one hand, and the no less pernicious effect of false 
philosophy and the pride of reason on the other. The 
Bible, the Bible alone, is the Religion of Pro- 
testants. 



1 833 



Leopold I. King of the Belgians. 
Otho, King of Greece. 



Mauro Cappellari elected pope (Gregory XVI. ). 

The Abbe Chatel excommunicated, on account of his 
attempts to erect a French National Church, independent 
of Rome. 

Union of the Roman Catholic clergy of Wurtemburg 
for the abolition of the law of celibacy. 



t J. F. Schleusner, L. f J- E. C. Schmidt, L. t T. F. 
Stange, R. 

Partial revival of Christianity at Geneva. 



Gregory XVI. addresses a letter to the bishops of 
Bavaria against mixed marriages, and concerning the 
danger of familiar intercourse with Protestants. 



The impostor Matthias at New York. 



t J. A. H. Tittman, L. | E. Zimmerman, L. 



* A commission for the better distribution of Church 
property in England. 

* Ten bishoprics in Ireland suppressed, with a view 
to an improved application of their revenues. 



Period.) to the present time. 473 

* Declaration of Faith and Order, adopted and put forth 
by the Congregational Union of England and Wales; but 
not as a test or creed for subscription. 
1833 * Methodist Churches. — The Wesleyan Methodists, in 
Great Britain and Foreign Parts, now amount to, Old 
Connection, 3410 preachers, 914,131 members; New 
Connection, 63 preachers, 14,784 members. (More than 
one half in the United States of America.) 



* Fanatical pretensions of the Irvingites excite increased 
attention. Edward Irving suspended by the Presbytery, 



t G. J. Planck, L. f Colin, L. 



1834 Prussian Agenda, 

a code of regulations for government of the churches, 
and conduct of divine worship, issued by the Prussian 
government. Many of the pastors refusing to adopt 
this code, the government afterwards had recourse to 
compulsory measures. Recusants suspended and de- 
prived. 



f *- Edward Irving. 



University of Brussels founded, 
*f F. E. D. Schleiermacher, L. 
1836 t * Edward Burton. 



1837 * Victoria, Queen of Great Britain. 



Protestant Churches of France. — At this time, France 
possesses 366 pastors of the Reformed Church, and 230 
of the Lutheran. 

The Protestant churches of France have not altogether 
escaped those errors of a false philosophy, by which Christ- 
ian truth has been undermined in Germany and Swit- 
zerland. But there is reason to hope for an extensive 



474 FROM THE REFORMATION (Seventh 

revival of the doctrines and spirit of the Gospel among 
them. 



1837 Restless efforts of the Romish party to restore papal 
ascendancy in Prussia. The king imprisons some Roman 
Catholic bishops for contempt of the laws and breach of 
their engagement with reference to mixed marriages. 
The dispute between the government and the Romish See 
continues. 



Roman Catholics acquire a great increase of political 
power in Great Britain. 



In England, some influential divines of the Episcopal 
Church declare their adherence to certain erroneous doc- 
trines and false pi^etensions, which lie at the foundation of 
ecclesiastical superstition and tyranny. Thus we are 
threatened with a revival of errors and fables which were 
(more or less) exploded at the Reformation. In the mean- 
time, the Bible is a great and unflinching Protestant. 
Truth must prevail at last. — " It is the Lord, let Him 
do what seemeth Him good !" 



Some remains of ancient Oriental sects, or Christian 
communities, exist to the present day, without having 
been merged in the Church of Rome. These are 

I. Nestorian or Chaldean Christians, — a part of the 
church settled on the coast of Malabar (the other part 
having conformed to the Church of Rome). 

II. Monophysites ; namely, 

1. Syrian Jacobites, under a patriarch at Antioch 

(a small portion of their body having been 
united to the Church of Rome, under a patri- 
arch at Aleppo). 

2. Copts, in Egypt, under a patriarch at Alexan- 
dria. 

3. Armenians, under their own catholicos, resident 

in Persia (part of this body only having joined 
the Romish Church). 



Period.) 



TO THE PRESENT TIME. 



475 



4. Abyssinians, under a head subordinate to the 

Coptic patriarch (subject to the Romish yoke 

only for a short period, at the beginning of the 

seventeenth century). 

III. Monothelites ; i.e. the Maronites of Mount Lebanon. 

Although nominally united to the Romish Church, they re- 

tian a considerable degree of independence, under their 

own patriarchs, and some ancient institutions and customs, 

e.g. marriage of their clergy, divine service in the vernacular 

tongue, administration of the communion in both kinds. 



List of Popes, Patriarchs, and Archbishops or 
Canterbury, from the Year 1556 to 1837. 



1556. * Cardinal Pole. 
1559. Pius IV. 

— * Matthew Parker. 

1565. Metrophanes III. 

1566. Pius V. 

1572. Gregory XIII. 

— Jeremiah II. 
Metrophanes deposed. 

1575. * Edmund Grindal. 

1579. Metrophanes III. 

restored. 

1 580. Jeremiah I. 

restored. 
1583. * John Whitgift. 

— Pachomhts II. and 
Theoleptus II. 

during a second temporary deposition 
of Jeremiah. 

1585. Sixtus V. 

1590. Urban VII. 

— Gregory XIV. 

1591. Innocent IX. 

— Clement VIII. 
1594. Matthew II. 

— Gabriel I. 

after the abdication of Matthew. 



1594- Theophanes 

succeeded Gabriel. 
1595. Matthew II. 

restored. 

1600 Neophytus I 

Matthew deposed. 

1601. Matthew II 

restored. 

1602. Raphael II 

1604. * Richard Bancroft. 

1605. Leo XI. 

— Paul V. 

1606. Neophytus 

restored. 
1610. Timothy II. 

— * George Abbot. 
1621. Gregory XV. 

— Cyril Lucaris 

frequently deposed and restored. 

(Gregory IV. 

Anthymius II 

Cyril II. 

Athanasius II. 

Neophytus II). 
1623. Urban VIII. 
1633. * William Laud. 



476 



from the reformation, etc. {Seventh Period.) 



1639. Parthenius I 

1644. Innocent X. 

— Parthenius II. 

1645. * Laud beheaded. 

See of Canterbury vacant. 

1646. Joannicus II. 

Parthenius II. deposed. 

1647. Parthenius II. 

restored. 
1650. Joannicus II. 

restored. Continual changes. 

{Cyril III. 

Paisius I. 

Parthenius III. 

Gabriel II). 
1655. Alexander VII. 
1657. Parthenius IV. 

frequently deposed and restored. 

Dionysius III. 

Clement. 

Methodius III. 

Dionysius IV. 

Gerasimus II). 
1660. * William Juxon. 
1663. * Gilbert Sheldon. 
1667. Clement IX. 
1670. Clement X. 

1676. Innocent XI. 

1677. * William Sancroft. 
1689. Alexander VIII. 
1691. Innocent XII. 

— * John Tillotson. 
1694. * Thomas Tenison. 

Perpetual changes in the See of Con- 
stantinople, and confusion in the succes- 
sion. 

The names of the Patriarchs who 



succeeded Parthenius are the follow- 
ing:— 

Athanasius III. 

lames. 

Callinicus II. 

Neophytus III. 

Gabriel III. 

Neophytus IV. 

Cyprian. 

Athanasius IV. 

Cyril V. 

Comus II. 

Jeremiah III. 

Paisius II. 

Seraphim (1733). 
1700. Clement XL 
1715. * William Wake. 
1721. Innocent XIII. 
1724. Benedict XIII. 
1730. Clement XII. 
1737 * John Potter. 
1740. Benedict XIV. 
1747 * Thomas Herring. 

1757. * Matthew Hutton. 

1758. Clement XIII. 
— * Thomas Seeker. 

1768. * Frederic Cornwallis. 
1769- Clement XIV. 
1775. Pius VI. 
1783. *John Moore. 
1800. Pius VII. 
1805. *C. M.Sutton. 
1823. Leo XII. 

1828. * William Howley. 

1829. Pius VIII. 
1831. Gregory XVI. 



N.B. Councils possess comparatively little importance after the close of the 
Council of Trent, in 1563. Such of them as are worthy of note, as affecting the 
interests of the Church to any extent, are recorded in the General Chronology. 



END OF THE SEVENTH PERIOD. 



INDEX. 



The numbers denote the years under which the several articles are described or mentioned. 



Abbadie, James, 1727. 
Abelard, 1125; 1142. 
Abulpharagius, Gregory, 1286. 
Acacius, Bp. of Csesarea, 358. 
Acacius, Patriarch of Constantinople, 

472; 478 ; 484; 489. 
Acceptants, 1717. 
Achillas, 282. 

Act of the Six Articles, 1539 ; 1546. 
Act of Uniformity, 1662. 
Act of Toleration, 1689; 1779. 
Acta Sanctorum, 1643. 
Acts of Pilate, 33; 311. 
Acts of the Apostles, 64. 
Adalbert of Prague, 997. 
Adamnan, 695. 

Adiaphoristic Controversy, 1548. 
Admonition to Parliament, 1572. 
Ado, 875. 

Adolphus of Nassau, Emp. Ger., 1291. 
Adoptian Controversy, 787 ; 792; 794; 
799; 817. 

Adrian, Emp., 117; at Alexandria, 120; 
at Athens, 122; at Rome, 125; let- 
ters of, 126; 129. 

Advertisements, 1565 ; 1566. 

iElia Capitolina, 135. 

./Eneas of Gaza, 485. 

iEneas Sylvius Piccolomini, 1439; 1447; 
1456; 1458. 

iEpinus, John, 1548. 

Aerius, 368. 

Aetius, 358. 

Agapetus, 536. 

Agenda, Prussian, 1834. 

Agnoetae, 521. 

Agobard, 815 ; 833 ; 834. 

Agricola, John, 1566. 

Alan of Lille, 1294. 

Alban, 303. 

Albert the Great, 1 280. 

Albert of Austria, Emp. Germ., 1438. 

Albigenses, 1198 ; 1208. 

Albinus, 62. 

Alciato, Paul, 1565. 

Alcimus Avitus, 525. 

Alcuin, 735; 760; 763; 782; 793; 
794 ; 799 ; 804. 

Alexander, Bp. of Jerusalem, 214. 

Alexander Severus, Emp., 222. 



Alexander, Emp. E., 911. 
Alexander of Hales, 1245. 
Alexander, Natalis, 1724. 
Alexandria, Catechetical School of, 175; 

180; 188; 220; 231; 232; 247; 

261 ; 282. 
Alexius I. (Comnenus), Emp. E., 

1081. 
Alexius II., Emp. E., 1180. 
Alexius III., Emp. E., 1195. 
Alexius IV., Emp. E., 1204. 
Alexius V. (Ducas Murzuphilus), 

Emp. E., 1204. 
Alfred, 878; 880; 884. 
Alliance, Catholic or Holy, 1538. 
All Saints, Festival of, 611 ; 830. 
All Souls, Festival of, 998. 
Allix, Peter, 1717. 
Alogi, 203. 

Alombrades, 1575 ; 1623. 
Alp Arslan, 1063; 1065; 1071. 
Alting, Henry, 1644. 
Alting, James, 1679. 
Amalric of Bene, 1200; 1209. 
Ambrose,Bp. of Milan, 374; 380; 388; 

390; 397. 
Ammon, C. F., 1796. 
Ammonius Saccas, 204 ; 226 ; 232. 
Amphilochius, 394. 
Amyraldus, Moses, 1664. 
Anabaptists, 1522; 1528, 1529; 1534; 

1537; 1601 ; 1612; 1645. 
Anastasius I., Emp. E., 491. 
Anastasius II., Emp. E., 713. 
Anastasius, monk, 686. 
Anastasius, librarian at Rome, $64. 
Ancyra, Council of, 358 
Andreas, James, 1590. 
Andreas, J. V., 1615; 1654. 
Andreas, of Caesarea, 491. 
Andreas, Antony, 1320. 
Andronicus I. (Comnenus), Emp. E. , 

1183. 
Andronicus II., Emp. Const., 1283. 
Andronicus III., Emp. Const, 1328. 
Anglo-Saxons, 450; 460; 521; 527; 

547 ; 678; 826. 
Anomoeans. See Arianism. 
Ansegius, 871. 
Anselm, 1089; 1097; 1106. 
Ansgar, 826 ; 828 ; 831 ; 834 ; 855; 864, 



478 



INDEX. 



Anthemius, Emp. W., 467. 

Anthimus, 536. 

Anthropomorphites, 939. 

Antiburghers, 1747. 

Anticocceians. See Cocceian Contro- 
versy. 

Antidicomarianites, 380. 

Antinomians, 1643; 1645; 1690. 

Antinomistian Controversy, 1539. 

Antioch, Church of, 40 ; 41 ; 47 ; 48. 

Antioch, Councils of, 265 ; 269 ; 341 ; 
358. 

Antioch, School of, 297. 

Antoninus Pius, Emp., 138. 

Antony, 309 ; 356. 

Antony, Monks of, 1095. 

Aphthartodocetae, 521. 

Apocrisiarii, 596 ; end of 7th cent. 

Apocryphal Gospels, &c. 155. 

Apollinaris, elder and younger, 362 ; 
378. 

Apollonius, 180. 

Apollonius of Tyana, 303. 

Apologies of Quadratus and Aristides, 
122. 

Apology of Justin Martyr, first, 148 ; 
second, 163. 

Apology of Melito, 170; of Miltiades 
and Claudius Apollinaris, 170. 

Apology of Athenagoras, 176. 

Apology of Tertullian, 198. 

Apostles, 33; 35; 44; 49; 81. 

Apostolical Constitutions and Canons, 
286. 

Apostolicals, 1260; 1280; 1286; 1290; 
1300. 

Apostoolians, 1664. 

Appellants, 1717; 1723; 1730. 

Aquila, 119. 

Aquinas. See Thomas. 

Arator, 556. 

Arcadius and Honorius, Emp., 395. 

Arcadius, Edict of, 398. 

Archbishop, 581. 

Archdeacons, 400 ; 1072. 

Arianism; Alius; 318; 321; 325 
327 ; 331 ; 335 ; 337 ; 342 ; 345 
351; 357; 358; 359; 363; 380 
484; 485; 517; 518; 524; 525 
536; 553; 558; 568; 589; 602 
670. 

Aristides, Apology of, 122. 

Aristotelian Philosophy, 439; 510; 529; 
730; 750; 794; 1209. 

Aries, Councils of, 314 ; 353. 

Arminians ; Arminius, 1587; 1600; 
1603; 1609; 1610; 1622; 1627. 

Arnauld, Antony, 1642; 1655; 1694. 

Arndt, John, 1615; 1621. 

Arnobius, 307. 



Arnold of Brescia, 1134; 1139; 1145; 

1155. 
Arnold, G., 1714. 
Arnulph, 991 ; 997. 
Arsenius Autorianus, 1257. 
Artemon, Artemonites, 193. 
Articles of Torgau, 1530. 
Articles concerning Faith and Cere- 
monies, 1536. 
Articles of Smalcald, 1537. 
Articles and Interrogatories, ex officio 

mero, 1584. 
Articles, Lambeth, 1595. 
Articles of Perth, 1618 ; 1638. 
Articles of Religion, forty-two, 1553; 

thirty-eight, 1563; thirty-nine, 1571 ; 

1628; 1772. 
Ascetics, 178. 

Assembly at Jerusalem, 49. 
Assembly of Divines at Westminster, 

1643;* 1654. 
Asylum, Right of, 378 ; 398; 431 ; 432 ; 

441 ; 585. 
Athanasian Creed, 434 ; 485 ; 670. 
Athanasius, 325 ; 326 ; 331 ; 335; 337; 

340; 341; 346; 347; 351; 356; 

362; 363; 367; 373. 
Athenagoras, 175 ; 176. 
Athens, Church of, 150. 
Attila, 453. 
Atto, 960. 

Augsburg, Confession of, 1530. 
Augsburg, Peace of, 1555. 
Augustin, Bp. of Hippo, 390; 391 ; 395; 

400; 405; 407; 412; 419; 420; 

426 ; 428 ; 430. 
Augustin, Hermits of, 1256; 1274. 
Augustin, Abp. of Cant., 596; 598; 

601 ; 602 ; 606 ; 613. 
Aurelian, Emp., 270. 
Auto-da- Fe, 1556. 
Avignon, 1308; 1370; 1377; 1378; 

1385; 1398. 
Avitus, Emp. W., 455. 

B. 

Bacon, Roger, 1294. 

Bacon, John, 1346. 

Bahrdt, C. F., 1792. 

Baier, J. W., 1695. 

Baius, 1567; 1569; 1579; 1587; 1589. 

Bajazet, 1389j 1396 ; 1402. 

Bangor, Monks of, 613. 

Bangorian Controversy, 1717. 

Baptism, 33; 176; 204; 215; 255; 

256 ; end of 3d cent. ; end of 4th 

cent.; 447; 450; 585; 1652; 1712. 
Baptist Churches, 1608 ; 1616; 1620; 

1633; 1646; 1689; 1691; 1700; 

1767; 1792; 1795. 



INDEX, 



479 



Baradaeus (Jacobus), 545. 
Barbarism of the Middle Ages, 510. 
Barclay, Robert, 1690. 
Bardesanesof Edessa, 140; 165; 175. 
Barlaara, 1339 ; 1340; 1341. 
Barnabas, St., 40 ; 44; 45 ; 47 ; 48 ; 49; 

50. 
Barnabas, St., (spurious) Epistle of, 122. 
Barnabites, Order of, 1530. 
Barnes, Martyrdom of, 1540. 
Baronius, Caesar, 1588 ; 1607. 
Barsymas, 451 ; 485. 
Basil, of Neocaesarea, 363; 370; 378. 
Basil I., Emp. E., 867 ; 871. 
Basil II. and Constantine IX., Emp. E., 

976. 
Basilicus, Emp. E., 476. 
Basilides, 122. 

Basle, General Council of, 1431 ; 1439. 
Basnage, Samuel, 1691. 
Basnage, J., 1723. 
Baumgarten, S. J., 1757. 
Bauny, Stephen, 1649. 
Baxter, Richard, 1641 ; 1662; 1691. 
Bayle, Peter, 1706. 
Beaton, Cardinal, 1529; 1539; 1542; 

1546. 
Beausobre, J., 1738. 
Beccus (or Veccus), John, 1274; 1282; 
1298. 

Bechmann, F., 1703. 

Becket, Thomas a, 1162; 1164; 1166; 
1169; 1173- 

Bede, 716; 731 ; 734; 735 

Beghards, Beguines, 1210; 1245; 1292; 

1341 ; 1349. 
■ Belgic Confession, 1561; 1582; 1605; 
1618. 

Belisarius, 534; 538; 552. 

Bellarmin, Cardinal, 1621. 

Benedict, of Nursia, 480 ; 529. 

Benedict, of Aniane, 817 ; 821. 

Benedictines, 561 ; 615 ; 817. 

Bengel, J. A. 1752. 

Benson, George, 1765. 

Bereans, 1773. 

Berenger I., King of Italy, 916. 

Berenger II., King of Italy, 945 ; 951 ; 
961. 

Berenger of Tours, 1048 ; 1050 ; 1054 ; 
1059; 1078; 1088. 

Berlin, Conference at, 1702. 

Bernard, 1113; 1115; 1125j 1145: 
1153. 

Berno, 910; 927. 

Berthold, 1150. 

Bertholdt, 1822. 

Bertling, E. A., 1769. 

Berulle, 1613. 

Beryllus, 240. 



Bessarion, 1438; 1472. 

Beza, Theodore, 1553; 1556; 1605. 

Bianchi, 1399. 

Biddle, John, 1662. 

Biel, Gabriel, 1495. 

Bishops' Bible, the, 1568. 

Bishops' Book, 1537. 

Blair, Hugh, 1801. 

Blandrata, G., 1578; 1590. 

Blastus, 170. 

Blondel, David, 1655. 

Blount, Charles, 1693. 

Bochart, Samuel, 1667. 

Bocher, Joan, 1549. 

Bockhold, 1534. 

Bodin, J. 1596. 

Boethius, 480; 510; 525. 

Bogomili, 1103; 1118; 1140; 1143. 

Bbhme, J., 1624. 

Boleslas I., of Bohemia, 938 ; 945. 

Boleslas II., of Bohemia, 967. 

Boleslas L, of Poland, 1002. 

Bolland, 1643. 

Bona, Cardinal, 1674. 

Bonaventura, 1245; 1253; 1256; 1260; 

1274; 1482. 
Boniface, Patr. of Rome, 530 ; 532. 
Boniface, Apostle of Germany, 715; 718; 

722; 723; 732; 743; 745; 753; 755. 
Bonner, 1547; 1549; 1553; 1557. 
Bonosus, 388. 
Borgia, 1492. 
Borner, C. R, 1753. 
Borromeo, 1583. 
Bossuet, J. B.,1670; 1680; 1682; 1688; 

1698 ; 1704. 
Bourdaloue, Louis, 1704. 
Bourignon, Antoinette, 1680. 
Boyle Lectures, 1692. 
Bradwardine, 1325; 1347. 
Braschi, Cardinal, 1775. 
Braun, J., 1710. 
Breithaupt, J. J., 1732. 
Breitinger, 1776. 
Brentz, John, 1570. 
Bret, Le, J. F., 1807. 
Brethren and Sisters of the Free Spirit, 

1311. 
Brethren, Bohemian, Moravian, United, 

Church of the, 1457; 1467; 1503; 

1548; 1616; 1722; 1727; 1736; 

1792; 1799; 1801. 
Brethren of Mercy, Order of, 1540. 
Breviarium Romanum, 1568. 
Brigitta, 1359 ; 1373; 1377. 
Bruno, Apostle of Prussia, 1007. 
Bruno, Bp. of Wurtzburg, 1045. 
Bruno, founder of the Carthusian Order, 

1101. 
Bruno, Giordano, 1600. 



480 



INDEX. 



Britain, introduction of the Gospel into, 

204. 
Browne, Robert, 1630. 
Brucker, J., 1770. 
Bryanites. See Methodists. 
Bucer, Martin, 1524; 1543; 1548; 

1551. 
Buddams, J. R, 1727; 1728. 
Budna?us, Simon, 1584. 
Bugenhagen, John (Pomeranus), 1525; 

1558. 
Bulgaria, 680; 855; 866; 870; 877; 959. 
Bull, the Golden, 1536 ; against Luther, 

1520; In Coena Domini, 1536 ; 1568 ; 

1610; 1627; 1770 ; Unigenitus, 1711 ; 

1717; 1720; 1725; 1728; 1730; 

1739; 1752; Dominus ac Redemptor 

Noster, 1773 ; Sollicitudo Omnium, 

1814. 
Bull, George, 1710. 
Bullinger, 1531 ; 1549 ; 1575. 
Burghers, 1747. 

Burchard, John (of Wesel), 1479. 
Burkard, Bp. of Worms, 1026. 
Burleigh, Walter, 1337. 
Burmann, Francis, 1679. 
Burnet, Gilbert, 1715. 
Burton, Edward, 1836. 
Bury Arthur, 1692. 
Buscher, Statius, 1639. 
Busching, 1793. 
Busenbaum, H., 1660. 
Butler, Joseph, 1753. 
Buxtorf, 1620; 1653; 1664. 



Caecilian, Bp. of Carthage, 311. 

Catenas, Michael, 1343. 

Cainites, 140. 

Cajetan, Cardinal, 1518; 1534. 

Calcutta, Bishopric of, 1815. 

Caligula, Emp., 37. 

Caliphs, Caliphate, 632; 634; 637; 638; 

639; 640; 644; 655; 661; 682; 711; 

712; 750; 753; 755; 766; 786; 800; 

813; 840; 903; 935; 965; 968; 1027; 

1050; 1054; 1152; 1260. 
Calixtines, 1420; 1433; 1434; 1436; 

1462. 
Calixtus, George, 1613; 1634; 1639; 

1643; 1645; 1655; 1656. 
Calixtus, Frederic, 1655; 1701. 
Callenberg, 1728. 
Calmet, A. 1757. 
Calov, Abraham, 1645; 1655; 1682; 

1686. 
Calvin, John, 1532; 1535, 1536; 1539; 

1541; 1549; 1552; 1553; 1554; 1556; 

1559; 1564. 
Camaldulensian Order, 1016. 
Camisards, 1688; 1700; 1706. 



Campanus, John, 1532; 1574. 

Campeggio, 1524 ; 1526. 

Campian, 1580; 1581. 

Canisius, Peter, 1551. 

Canon of Scripture, 150; 170; 350; 

494; 1771. 
Canon Law, 262; 1234. 
Canonici, — Canons and Chapters, 750; 

813; 815; 960; 976; 1059; 1121; 

1126. 
Cantores, 370. 

Capellus, 1624; 1650; 1653. 
Capito Wolfgang Fabricius, 1524. 
Capuchins, Order of, 1525; 1528. 
Caracalla, Emp., 212. 
Carlstadt, 1519; 1524; 1528; 1541. 
Carmelites, Order of, 1150; 1238; 1245; 

1274. 
Caroline Books, 790. 
Carpocrates, 145. 
Carpzov, J. B. (the elder), 1657. 
Carpzov, J. B. (the younger), 1699. 
Carpzov, J. G., 1767. 
Cartesian Philosophy, 1650. 
Carthusians, 1081. 
Cartwright, 1570; 1589. 
Cams, Emp., 282. 
Casino, Mount, Monastery of, 529. 
Cassander, George, 1566. 
Cassel, Conference at, 1661. 
Cassian, 395; 411; 425; 434; 435. 
Cassiodorus, 493 ; 536 ; 539 ; 563. 
Castellio, 1551 ; 1563. 
Cataphrygians. See Montanists. 
Catechism of the Council of Trent, 1566. 
Catechisms, Assembly's, 1643. 
Cathari, 1179. 
Catharine of Sienna, 1377. 
Catholic (or Holy) Alliance, 1538. 
Catholic League, 1609; 1620; 1631. 
Catholics, Poor, Order of, 1201. 
Cave, William, 1713. 
Ceillier, Le, 1761. 
Celestines, Order of, 1294. 
Celibacy, 178; 270; 378; 388. 
Celibacy of the Clergy, 325; 388 ; 450 

504; 538; 550; 598; 649; 680 

692; 721; 868; end of 9th cent. 

952; 969; 1000; 1073; 1081; 1101 

1538; 1549; 1831. See also Mar 

riage of the Clergy. 
Celidonius, 444. 
Celsus, 140. 
Cerinthus, 96. 
Chamier, Daniel, 1621. 
Chandler, Edward, 1 750. 
Chandler, Samuel, 1766. 
Chapters of Clergy. See Canonici. 
Charisius, 499. 
Charlemagne, 768; 771; 778; 782 

787; 790; 794; 803; 813. 



INDEX. 



481 



Charles the Bald, 869 ; 870 ; 871 ; 877. 

Charles the Fat, 884. 

Charles IV., Emp. Ger., 1347. 

Charles V., Emp. Ger., 1519; 1523; 
1556; 1558. 

Charles VI., Emp. Ger., 1711. 

Charles VII., Emp. Ger., 1742. 

Chartophylaces, end of 7th cent. 

Chateaubriand, F. A., 1802. 

Chatel, Abbe, 1831. 

Chemnitz, Martin, 1565; 1586. 

Cheregati, 1522. 

Chillingworth, William, 1644. 

Christo Sacrum, 1797 ; 1802. 

Christopher, Emp. E., 919. 

Chrodegang, 750. 

Chrysostom, 370; 380 ; 386 ; 398 ; 401 ; 
403; 404; 407. 

Chubb, Thomas, 1747. 

Church, constitution and government of 
the, 98; 100; 155; 176; 188; 214; 
215 ; 240 ; 244 ; 252 ; end of 3d 
century ; 323 ; 325 ; 331 ; 343 ; 347 
350; 383; 400; 516; 518; 528 
534 ; 536 ; 541 ; 545 ; 549 ; 557 
604 ; 635 ; 678 ; 692 ; 767 ; 1046 

Church, discipline of the, 81 ; 98 ; 155 
180; 215; 222; 249; 255; 256 
end of 3d. cent. ; 328 ; 450 ; 469 
506; 517; 534; 538; 539; 692 
end of 7th cent. ; 741 ; 747; 813 
1050; 1081; 1086; 1150; 1164 
1215; 1275. 

Church, doctrine and teaching of the, 35 ; 
129; 155; 180; end of 2d cent.; 
215; 240; 244; 252; 254; end of 
3d cent. ; 350 ; 407 ; 439 ; 442 ; 450 ; 
457; end of 5th cent.; 510; 550; 
650 ; 732 ; 750 ; 877 ; end of 9th 
cent.; 1046; 1072; 1098; 1129; 
1150: 1229; 1260; 1264; 1286; 
1299; 1333; end of 14th cent.; 
1420; end of 15th cent.; 1659; 
1787; 1830. 

Church, ministers of the, end of 3d cent. ; 
323; 326; 370; 390; 400; 457; 
472 ; 489 ; 529 ; 541 ; 550 ; 558 ; 
572 ; 581 ; 585 ; 589 ; 596 ; 604 ; 
675; end of 7th cent. ; 771 ; 794; 
844; 850; 950; 969; 1046; 1072. 

Church, rites and ceremonies of the, 33 ; 
42; 100; end of 2d cent.; 215; 
222 ; 240 ; 256 ; end of 3d cent. ; 
325 ; 343 ; 350 ; 370 ; end of 4th 
cent. ; 441 ; 447 ; 450 ; end of 5th 
cent.; 549; 561; 572; 598; 611 
650; 663; 675; 787; 800; 1050 
1060; 1081; 1130; 1140; 1325 
1351. 

Church and State, 320; 350; 655; 



750; 759; 813; 828; 850; end of 
9th cent. ; 960 ; 965; 969; 1054 
1059; 1066; 1072; 1076; 1087 
1094; 1097; 1106; 1139; 1161 
1162; 1164; 1302; 1307; 1613 
1626; 1700; 1 708 ; : 1721; 1725. 

Church property, 425 ; 467 ; 536 ; 549 ; 
557 ; 572 ; 585 ; 655 ; 675 ; 740 ; 
787; 791; 813; 850; 855; end of 
9th cent.; 969; 999; 1054; 1066 
1073; 1143; 1265; 1279; 1292 
1296; 1570; 1605; 1725; 1790 
1792; 1833. 

Churches of the East and West, disputes 
between, 345 ; 347 ; 407 ; 484 ; 544 
553; 589; 653; 768; 813; 867 
891 ; 950; 1046 ; 1053 ; 1054; 1098 
1199; 1230; 1274; 1339; 1367 
1438; 1556; 1576; 1621; 1634 

Churches, Evangelical and Reformed 
1612; 1615; 1631; 1661; 1702 
1707; 1719; 1720; 1724; 1736 
1801; 1817; 1823. 

Chytrasus, David, 1600. 

Circumcelliones, 342. 

Circumcision, question concerning, 49. 

Cistercians, 1 098 ; 1113. 

Civil War, English, 1642; 1643 ; 1644 ; 
1645; 1646; 1647; 1650. 

Clarendon, Constitutions of, 1164; 1166. 

Clarke, Samuel, 1712 ; 1728. 

Claude, of Turin, 831 ; 840. 

Claudian, 394. 

Claudius, Felix, 53. 

Claudius (Tiberius), Emp., 41. 

Claudius (M. Aurelius), Emp., 268. 

Claudius, poet, 442. 

Clayton, Robert, 1758. 

Clement of Rome, Epistle of, 98 ; death 
of, about 100. 

Clement of Alexandria, 188 ; 193 ; 202 ; 
218. 

Clement VII., Pope, 1378. 

Clergy. See Ministers of the Church. 

Clerici Regulares S. Majoli, 1543. 

Clericus, J., 1736. 

Clovis, 481 ; 486 ; 496 ; 504 ; 507 ; 511. 

Clugny, Monastery of, 910; 927; 998. 

Cocceius, John, Cocceian Controversy, 
1658; 1669; 1624. 

Ccelestius, 404; 41 1 ; 417. 

Collegia Philobiblica, 1689. 

Collegiants, 1630. 

Colin, 1833. 

Colossians, Epistle to the, 62. 

Columba, 561. 

Columban, 604 ; 606; 615. 

Commission, Court of High, 1559. 

Commission of Examinations, 1791. 

Committee of Triers, 1 654. 



482 



INDEX. 



Commodian, poet, 270. 
Commodus, Emp., 180. 
Common Prayer, English Book of, 1 545 
1548; 1549; 1550; 1551; 1552 
1553; 1555; 1560; 1604; 1633 
1661; 1689; 1712; 1731. 
Communion. See Lord's Supper. 
Complutensian Bible, 1520. 
Conclave, 1274; 1276. 
Concord, Form of, 1580. 
Concordat of Worms, 1122; of Vienna, 
1447; of Francis and Leo, 1516; 
Papal, with Spain, 1753 ; French, 
1801; 1817; Bavarian, 1817; Ne- 
apolitan, 1818; Prussian, 1821 ; 
Hanoverian, 1824; of the province of 
the Upper Rhine, 1827. 
Confession, private, 457 ; 1215. 
Confession, Belgic, 1561 ; 1582; 1605; 

1618. 
Confession of Augsburg, 1530. 
Confession, Tetvapolitan, 1530. 
Confession, Helvetic, first, 1536; second, 

1566. 
Confession des Eglises Reformees de 

France, 1559. 
Confession of the Mennonites, 1580; 

1755. 
Confession, Arminian, 1622. 
Confession, Orthodox, of the Greek 

Church, 1643. 
Confession, Baptist, 1646. 
Confession, Westminster, 1647. 
Confession of Calvinistic Baptists, 1689. 
Congregatio de Auxiliis, 1598. 
Congregatio de Propaganda Fide, 1622. 
Congregational Union of Scotland, 

1812. 
Congregationalists. See Independents. 
Conrad I., Emp. Ger., 912. 
Conrad II., Emp. Ger., 1024 ; 1032. 
Conrad III., Emp. Ger., 1138. 
Conrad IV., Emp. Ger., 1250. 
Conrad of Marpurg, 1232. 
Consensus Tigurinus. 1549. 
Consensus Pastorum Genevensium, 

1551 ; 1554. 
Consensus Dresdensis, 1571. 
Consensus Repetitus Fidei Vere Lu- 
therans, 1655. 
Consent of Faith at Sendomir, 1568. 
Constance, Council of, 1414. 
Constans and Constantine II., Emp. W., 

337. 
Constans II., Emp. E. 641. 
Constantine, conversion of, 311 ; sole 
emperor, 323 ; baptism and death of, 
337. 
Constantine II. and Constans, Emp. W. 

337. 
Constantine III., Emp. E., 641. 



Constantine IV. (Pogonatus), Emp. E., 

668; 680. 
Constantine V. (Copronymus\ Emp. E., 

741. 
Constantine VI., Emp. E., 780. 
Constantine VII., (Porphyrogenitus), 

Emp. E., 912; 945. 
Constantine VIII., Emp. E.,919. 
Constantine IX., Emp. E., 1025. 
Constantine X. (Monomachus), Emp. 

E., 1042 
Constantine XI. (Ducas), Emp. E., 

1059. 
Constantine XII. ( Palaeologus), Emp. 

E., 1448. 
Constantinople, first Council of, 381 ; 

second, 553 ; third, 680. 
Constantius and Galerian, Emp., 305. 
Constantius, Emp. E., 337. 
Constitutionists, 1717. 
Constitutions of Clarendon, 1 1 64 ; 1 166. 
Constitutum, 553. 

Consubstantiation. See Lord's Sup- 
per. 
Contareni, Cardinal, 1542. 
Contraremonstrants, 1610; 1611 ; 1613 ; 

1618. 
Controversies, early, 81 ; 155 ; 167. 
Conventicle Act, first, 1664; second, 

1670. 
Convocation, English, 1661. 
Convulsionn aires, 1730. 
Corbinian, 730. 
Corinthians, First Epistle to the, 56 ; 

Second Epistle, 58. 
Cornelius, conversion of, 41. 
Corporation Act, 1661 ; 1670. 
Corpus Juris Civilis Romana?, 558. 
Corpus Domini, Festival of, 1264; 

1311. 
Corpus Doctrinae Misnicum or Philip- 

picum, 1558. 
Correspondents, 596. 
Corruption of Christianity, early, 129. 
Cosmas Indicopleustes, 533. 
Cosmas of Constantinople, 1143. 
Cotta, J. F., 1779. 
Councils, 164; 196; 204; 262; end of 

3d cent. ; end of 4th cent. ; 544; end 

of 7th cent. ; 743; 750; 1431. 
Councils, General, I., 325; II.. 381 ; 
III., 431. ; IV., 451 ; V., 553 ; VI., 

680; VII., 787. 
Courayer Le, 1723; 1728. 
Covenant, 1638. 
Coverdale's Bible, 1535. 
Cramer, J. A., 1788. 
Cranmer, Abp. of Canterbury, 1533 ; 
1539; 1542; 1543; 1548; 1549; 
1552; 1553; 1554; 1555; 1556. 
Cranmer's Bible, 1539. 



[NDEX. 



483 



Creeds, 49 ; 150 ; 325 ; 351 ; 358 ; 359 

380; 434; 589; 796. 
Crell, John, 1633. 
Crell, Samuel, 1747. 
Crescens, 161. 
Crusades, 999; 1073; 1094; 1095 

1096; 1099; 1147; 1187; 1190 

1200; 1202; 1215; 1217; 1225 

1228; 1248; 1270; 1274; 1304 

1456; 1458; 1487. 
Crusius, C. A., 1775. 
Crypto- Calvinistic Controversy, 1558; 

1570; 1574; 1576; 1580; 1587; 1592. 
Cudworth, Ralph, 1688. 
Cumanus and Felix, 48. 
Curcellams, 1659. 
Cuspius Fadus, 44. 
Cyprian of Carthage, 248 ; 250 ; 251 ; 

254; 256; 257; 258. 
Cyprian, E. S., 1745. 
Cyriacus, 596. 

Cyril of Jerusalem, 350; 386. 
Cyril of Alexandria, 428 ; 430 ; 445. 
Cyril, Apostle of the Slavi, 855 ; 863 ; 

868. 
Cyril Lucaris, 1621 ; 1634; 1638 
Cyrus, Patriarch of Alexandria, 633. 

D. 

Daille, J., 1670. 

D'Ailly, Peter, 1381; 1412; 1414; 
1420; 1425. 

D'Alembert, 1783. 

Damasus, 366. 

Damian (of Alexandria), Damianites, 
565. 

Damian, Peter, 1072. 

Dancers, 1374. 

Danov, E. J., 1782. 

Daunhauer, J., 1661. 

Danzer, J., 1796. 

David of Dinanto, 1 200. 

Davidis, 1578. 

Deacons, 34. 

Decius, Emp., 24 9. 

Declaration of Faith and Order (Con- 
gregational), 1658 ; 1833. 

Decretals, 525 ; 635; 794; 834; 858; 
864; 871 ; 1073. 

De Dominis, Marcus Antonius, 1616; 
1622. 

Defensores, 503. 

Delft, Conference at, 1613. 

Demetrius, Bp. of Alexandria, 215. 

Demophilus, 379. 

Dereser, Thadd., 1827. 

Derham, William, 1735. 

Desiclerius, 756; 771. 

Devay, Matthias, 1549. 

Deyling, S., 1755. 

Diderot, 1784. 



Didius Julianus, Emp., 192. 

Didymus of Alexandria, 375 ; 396. 

Diocletian, Emp., 284. 

Diodorus of Tarsus, 395. 

Dionysius of Corinth, Epistles of, 163. 

Dionysius of Alexandria, 232 ; 261 ; 
262. 

Dionysius the Less (Canons and Decre- 
tals), 525 ; 545 ; 635. 

Dionysius the Areopagite, pretended 
writings of, 533 ; 606; 662; 817; 
827 ; 840 ; 845 ; end of 9th century. 

Dioscurus, 444 ; 446; 448; 451. 

Dippel, J. C, 1734. 

Directory, the, 1643; 1645. 

Dissenting Congregations in England 
and Wales, number of, 1716; 1776; 
1812. 

Dissidents, Polish, 1731 ; 1767. 

Docetse, 96. 

Doddridge, Philip, 1751. 

Dodwell, Henry, 1711. 

Doederlein, J. C, 1792. 

Dolcino, 1300; 1304. 

Dominicans, 1215; 1220; 1230; 1231 ; 
1256; 1260; 1274; 1350; 1494; 
1517; 1615; 1631 ; 1704. 

Dominus ac Redemptor noster, Bull en- 
titled, 1773. 

Domitian, Emp., 81. 

Donation of Constantine, forged, 794. 

Donatists, 311 ; 313; 314; 316; 317; 
321; 330; 342; 362; 390; 405; 
411 ; 602. 

Dorsch, J. G., 1659. 

Dort, Synod of, 1618. 

Douay Version, 1609. 

Dracontius, poet, 442. 

Driessen, A., 1748. 

Druthmar, 844 ; 850. 

Dublin, Synod of, 1634. 

Duchobortzi, 1745. 

Dudith, A., 1589. 

Dunkers, 1724. 

Dunstan, 950 ; 962 ; 969 ; 988. 

Duperron, J. D., 1618. 

Durand, William, 1276; (ob. 1296). 

Durand, William (de St. Pourcain), 
1333. 

Durand, Urs., 1770. 

Dury, John, 1680. 

Dzengis Khan 1206; 1221. 

E. 

Easter, time of. See Paschal Controversy. 

Ebbo, 822 ; 833 ; 834. 

Eberhard, J., 1809. 

Ebionites, 66. 

Eclectic Philosophy, 204 ; 232. 

Eck, 1519; 1520; 1543. 

Edelmann, J. C, 1767. 



484 



INDEX. 



Edessa, Church at, 81. 

Edict of Adrian, 125; of Antoninus 

Pius, 158. 
Edict of Decius, 249. 
Edict of Gallienus, 259. 
Edicts of Galerius, 304. 
Edict of Toleration, by Constantine and 

Licinius, 312. 
Edict of Milan, 313. 
Edict against the Manichees, 372. 
Edict of Arcadius, 398. 
Edict of Worms, 1521; 1522; 1524; 

1529. 
Edict of Nantes, 1597 ; 1685. 
Edict of Restitution, 1629 ; 1648. 
Edict of Toleration, by the Emp. Joseph, 

1781. 
Edict, Religious (Prussian), 1788. 
Egede, John, 1721. 
Eickhorn, J. G., 1827. 
Elcesaites, 104. 
Elipandus, 787. 

Elliot, John, 1621 ; 1658; 1690, 
Eisner, J., 1750. 
Elvira, Council of, 305. 
Emlyn, Thomas, 1741. 
Emmeran, 651. 

Ems, Congress at, 1786; 1787. 
Emser, Jerome, 1527. 
Encratites, 165. 
Engagement, the, 1649. 
Ennodius, 503 ; 521. 
Ephesians, Epistle to the, 61. 
Ephesus, Council of, Third General, 431. 
Ephesus, Council of (Synod of Rob- 
bers), 449. 
Ephraim the Syrian, 378. 
Epiphanius, 367 ; 375 ; 380 ; 402 ; 403. 
Episcopius, Simon, 1609; 1622; 1644. 
Erasmus, 1467; 1509; 1516; 1517; 

1520; 1521; 1523; 1524; 1536. 
Erimbert, 855. 
Ernesti, J. A., 1760; 1781. 
Erpenius, 1624. 
Et castera oath, 1640. 
Eucharist. See Lord's Supper. 
Eucherius, 450. 
Eudocia, Emp. E., 1067. 
Eudon de Stella, 1145. 
Eudoxius, 358. 
Eu genius, Usurper, 392. 
Eunomius, 358. 
Eusebius of Cassarea, 307 ; 310; 314; 

321 ; 325 ; 331 ; 340. 
Eusebius of Nicomedia, 325; 337; 339. 
Eusebius, Bp. of Emisa, 360. 
Eustathians; Eustathius, 331 ; 355. 
Eutyches; Eutychians, 446; 448; 449; 

451 ; 655. See also Monophysites. 
Eutychius of Alexandria, 950. 
Evangelical Union, 1608; 1621. 



Ewald, 723. 

Examinations, Commission of, 1791. 

Exposition of the Faith, 638 ; 648. 



Faber of Constance, 1523. 

Fabricius, J., 1728. 

Fabricius, J. A., 1736. 

Facundus, 548. 

Fagius, Paul, 1548 ; 1550. 

Familists, 1571 ; 1645. £ 

Farel, William, 1524; '1528; 1532; 

1539; 1565. 
Fasting; Fasts, 111; 222; 388. 
Faustus (Manichee), 400. 
Faustus, Bp. of Rhegium, 454 ; 469 ; 

475; 484. 
Feast of All Souls, 998. 
Feasts of Charity, 35 ; 215. 
Febronius. See Hontheim. 
Fecht, J., 1716. 
Felbiger, 1788. 

Felix, Patriarch of Rome, 483 ; 484. 
Felix of Urgella, 787 ; 792 ; 793 ; 794; 

799. 
Fenelon, F. de Salignac de la Motte, 

1685; 1695; 1698; 1699. 
Ferdinand I., Emp. Ger., 1556 ; 1558. 
Ferdinand II., Emp. Ger., 1619; 1620. 
Ferdinand III., Emp. Ger., 1637. 
Ferrar, Nicholas, 1637. 
Festivals, early ; end of 2d, 3d, and 4th 

centuries. 
Festival of the Nativity, 386. 
Festival of the Purification, 526. 
Festival of All Martyrs (All Saints), 

611. 
Festival of Orthodoxy, 842. 
Festival of Corpus Domini, 1264; 1311. 
Festival of the Holy Trinity, 1320 ; 

1405. 
Festival of the Spear and Nails, 1354. 
Festival of the Visitation, 1389. 
Festival of the Immaculate Conception, 

1431. 
Festival of the Transfiguration, 1456. 
Festival of the Seven Joys of the Virgin 

Mary, 1745. 
Festus, 55. 
Feuerborn, J., 1656. 
Fifth Monarchy Men, 1645. 
Filioque, 589 ; 796 ; 809. 
Firmilian, 232 ; 269. 
Fisher, Bp. of Rochester, 1534; 1535. 
Fisher, Samuel, 1664. 
Fitzralph, Richard, 1356. 
Five Mile Act, 1665. 
Flacian Controversy, 1581; 1605. 
Flaeius, 1561 ; 1575. 
Flagellants, 1334; 1341; 1349; 1414; 

1419. 






INDEX. 



485 



Flatt, J. F., 1822, 

Flechier, E., 1710. 

Fleury, Claude, 1723. 

Fleury, Cardinal, 1743. 

Flodoard of Rheims, 966. 

Florinus, 170. 

Florus Magister, 853. 

Fontanini, J., 1736. 

Fontevraud, Order of, 1106. 

Fordyce, James, 1796. 

Form of the Faith, 648. 

Form of Concord, 1 580. 

Formula Consensus Helvetici, 1675. 

Fox, George, 1647; 1649; 1691. 

Francis, St. See Franciscans. 

Francis, St. , Hermits of. See Franciscans 

Francis of Paris, 1730. 

Franciscans, 1207; 1219; 1223; 1226 

1231; 1245; 1249; 1256; 1274 

1279; 1282; 1294; 1311; 1323 

1324; 1340; 1341; 1350; 1434 

1474; 1525; 1625; 1708. 
Francis, I., Emp. Ger., 1741. 
Francis II., Emp. Ger., 1792; 1804. 
Franke, A. H., 1689; 1694; 1700; 

1704; 1727. 
Frankfort Recess, 1558. 
Franks, 430; 486 ; 496; 504; 507; 511 ; 

527; 534; 534; 561; 771. 
Franz, Wolf., 1628. 
Fratres Militia? Christi, or Gladiferi, 

1202. 
Fratres Communis Vita?, 1375. 
Fratricelli, 1341. 
Frederic I., Emp. Ger., 1152 ; 1154 ; 

1155; 1157; 1158; 1160; 1165; 

1174; 1189. 
Frederic II., Emp. Ger., 1218; 1239; 

1241; 1244; 1245. 
Frederic III., Emp. Ger., 1440. 
Frederic the Wise, Elector of Saxony, 

1520; 1525. 
Free Spirit, Brethren and Sisters of the, 

1311. 
Fresenius, J. P., 1761. 
Frey, J. L., 1759. 

Friars Minor, Tertiary. See Franciscans. 
Friends, Society of, 1649; 1664; 1666; 

1675; 1676; 1677; 1682; 1689; 

1691; 1693; 1695; 1790; 1829. 
Fulbert, 1007 ; 1028. 
Fulgentius Ferrandus, 549. 
Funk, J., 1555 ; 1556. 



Gabler, 1826. 

Galatians, Epistle to the, 52. 

Galba, Emp., 68. 

Galenists, 1664. 

Galerius and Maximian, Emp., 306. 

Gallienus, Emp., 259. 



I I 



Gallus, Emp., 251. 

Gallus (St. Gall.), 604; 606. 

Gangra, Council of, 365. 

Gardiner, 1547 ; 1548 ; 1550 ; 1553 ; 

1555. 
Gaston, 1095. 
Geddes, Alex., 1802. 
Geier, Martin, 1680. 
Gelasius of Cyzicum, 478. 
Gelasius, Patriarch of Rome, 494 ; 496. 
Geneva Bible, 1560. 
Gennadius, 491 ; 493. 
Genseric, 455. 
Gentilis, J. Valentin, 1566. 
George of Trapezond, 1486. 
Georgius Acropolita Logothetes, 1282. 
Gerard Lubbert, 1580. 
Gerber, 1793. 

Gerbert, 991 ; 997 ; 999 ; 1003. 
Gerdes, D., 1762. 
Gerhard, J., 1610 ; 1615; 1637. 
Germanus and Lupus, 442. 
Gerson, 1377; 1395; 1406; 1412; 1420; 

1429. 
Gessius Florus, 65. 
Ghibelines, 1155; 1198. 
Gichtel, J. G., 1710. 
Gilbert of Poitiers, 1154. 
Gladiferi, 1202; 1230; 1237. 
Glassites, 1730. 

Glassius, Salomon, 1645; 1656. 
Glycerius, Emp. W., 473. 
Gnosticism, Gnostics, 49; 55; 81 ; 97; 

104; 122; 140; 145; 150; 156; 163; 

198; 215; 390. 
Goar, 604. 

Gomarus, 1603 ; 1609; 1641. 
Gordian, Emp., 238. 
Gorm, 934. 
Gothofred, 1208. 
Goths, 309; 370. 
Gottschalk, 829 ; 847 ; 848 ; 853 ; 855 ; 

869. 
Gbtze, J. M., 1786. 
Gousset, J., 1704. 
Grabe, J. E., 1711. 
Gratiae Exspectativa?, 1215. 
Gratian, 1151 ; 1158. 
Great Bible, 1539. 
Gregory Thaumaturgus, 232; 235; 

239; 240; 270. 
Gregory Nazianzen, 356; 361; 363; 

372; 376; 379; 380; 389. 
Gregory Nyssen, 363; 372; 376; 378; 

381 ; 395. 
Gregory of Tours, 595. 
Gregory I., or the Great, 590; 591 ; 

596; 598; 602; 604. 
Gregory of Utrecht, 756. 
Gregory VII., Pope. See Hildebrand. 
Gregory of Valentia, 1603. 

3 



486 



INDEX. 



Gretser, J., 1624. 

Gribaldi, Matthew, 1564. 

Griesbach, J. J., 1812. 

Grimoaid, 662 , 670. 

Grindal, 1577 ; 1581. 

Groot, Gerard, 1375. 

Grostete (Capito), Robert, 235; 1253. 

Grotius, H., 1641 ; 1645. 

Guelphs, 1155; 1198. 

Guibert of Nogent, 1260. 

Guiscard, Robert, 1059. 

Gunpowder Plot, 1605. 

Gurtler, N., 1712. 

Gustavus Vasa, 1523. 

Guyon, Madame, 1695; 1717. 

Gylas, 945. 

H. 

Hague, Conferences at the, 1610 ; 1823; 

Haimo, 840 ; 853. 

Hakon, 938. 

Hall, Joseph, Bp. of Norwich, 1656. 

Halle, University of, 1694; Orphan 

House at, 1698. 
Haller, 1528. 

Hamburg, Conference at, 1526. 
Hamel, 1587. 
Hamilton, Patrick, 1528. 
Hammond, Henry, 1652; 1660. 
Hampton Court, Conference at, 1604. 
Hanseatic League, 1250. 
Hanstein, 1821. 
Harald, King of Denmark, 945 ; 972 ; 

975; 991. 
Harduin, J., 1728. 
Hebrews, Epistle to the, 62 or 63. 
Hegesippus, 175. 
Heidegger, J. H., 1697. 
Heidelberg Catechism, 1562; 1582; 

1605; 1618. 
Heineccius, J. G., 1741. 
Helena, 326. 
Heliodorus, 394. 
Heliogabalus, Emp.,218. 
Helvetic Confession, 1536; 1566. 
Helvetius, 1771. 
Helvidius, 388. 
Helvius Pertinax, Emp., 192. 
Henke, H. P. C, 1809. 
Henoticon, 482; 485; end of 5th cent. ; 

518. 
Henricians, 1124; 1147. 
Henry of Lausanne, 1116; 1124; 1134. 
Henry I. (the Fowler), Emp. Ger, 919. 
Henry II., Emp. Ger., 1002. 
Henry III-, Emp. Ger., 1039. 
Henry IV., Emp. Ger., 1056; 1076; 

1077; 1078; 1080; 1084. 
Henry V., Emp. Ger., 1106; 1110; 

1111 ; 1112; 1116; 1118. 
Henry VI., Emp. Ger., 1190. 



Henry VII., Emp. Ger., 1303. 
Henry VIII., King of England, 1509 
1521; 1522; 1527; 1529; 1530 
1533; 1534; 1535; 1536; 1539 
1540; 1542; 1547. 
Henry, Duke of Saxony, 1539. 
Heraclas, 231. 

Heracleon of Alexandria, 140. 
Heracleonas, Emp. E., 641 . 
Heraclius, Emp. E., 610; 625; 638. 
Herbert, Lord, 1648. 
Herder, J. G., 1803. 
Hermann, Abp. of Cologne, 1539 ; 1543 ; 

1544; 1545; 1546; 1552. 
Hermas, 145. 

Hermes Trismegistus, 122. 
Hermits of Augustin. See Augustin. 
Hermits of St. Francis. See Francis- 
cans. 
Hermogenes, 203. 

Herod Agrippa, king of Galilee, 37 ; 
king of all Palestine, 41 ; his death, 44. 
Hervaeus Natalis, 1323. 
Heshusius, 1588. 
Heumann, C. A., 1764. 
Hicks, Elias, 1829. 
Hierarchical System, rise of the, 204. 
Hierax, 296. 
Hierocles, 300. 

High Commission, Court of, 1559. 
Hilary of Poitiers, 368. 
Hilary the Deacon, 384. 
Hilary of Aries, 429 ; 449. 
Hilary, Patriarch of Rome, 461 ; 463 ; 

465. 
Hildebrand, 1054; 1073; 1077; 1078; 

1080; 1084; 1085. 
Hilduin, 840. 
Hincmar of Rheims, 848 ; 853 ; 859 ; 

862; 864; 869; 870; 871; 882. 
Hippolytus, 220, 250. 
Hirschau, Congregation of, 1069. 
Hoadley, Benjamin, 1761. 
Hobbes, Thomas, 1678. 
Hoe, Matthew, 1645. 
Hoepper, Henry, 1642. 
Hohenstaufen, House of, 1138; 1155; 

1198; 1215; 1253; 1268. 
Holy Ghost, Procession of the, 1098. 
Holy Legislative Synod, 1721, 
Homiliarium, 794. 
Homilies, Book of, 1547; 1563. 
Homceousians. See Arianism. 
Homunciones, 346. 
Honorius of Autun, 1130. 
Hontheim von, J. N., 1763; 1778; 

1790. 
Hooker, Richard, 1585. 
Hoornbeck, J., 1668. 
Horneius, Conrad, 1643. 
Hosius, 321 ; 357 ; 361. 






INDEX. 



487 



Hospitalers of St. John of Jerusalem, 

1099; 1291; 1309; 1509; 1523; 

1530. 
Hottinger, J. H., 1667. 
Huet, P. D., 1721. 
Hugh of St. Victor, 1140. 
Hugh of St. Cher, 1263. 
Huguenots, 1560; 1562; 1572; 1575. 

See also Wars in France. 
Hiilsemann, J., 1645; 1661. 
Humbert, Cardinal, 1059 ; 1065. 
Humbert of Romans, 1 260. 
Hume, David, 1776. 
Hunnius, iEgidius, 1603. 
Hunnius, Nicholas, 1643. 
Huss, John, 1373 ; 1398 ; 1400 ; 1402 ; 

1409; 1410; 1412; 1413; 1414. 
Hussites, the, War of, 1417; 1420; 1424; 

1433. 
Hutchinson, Hutchinsonians, 1727; 1749. 
Hutten, 1521. 
Hutter, Leonard, 1616. 
Hydroparastata?, 165. 
Hyperius, 1564. 
Hypsistarians, 310. 

I. 

Ibas, Bp. of Edessa, 457. 

Iberia, 328 ; 350. 

Iconoclasts, Iconomachi. See Images. 

Ignatius, death of, 107 (al. 116); 

Epistles of, ib. 
Ignatius, Patriarch of Constantinople, 

858 ; 863; 867; 878. " 
Ildefonsus, 661. 
Images, use of, 598 ; 606 ; 692 ; 726 

730; 741; 754; 775; 778; 784; 786 

787; 790; 794; 800; 814; 815; 820 

824; 825; 830; 831; 842; 843; 878 

1525; 1548; 1781. 
Immaculate Conception, Feast of, 1431. 
In Coena, Domini, Bull entitled, 1536; 

1568; 1610; 1627; 1770. 
Inas, 728. 
Incense, 370. 
Independents, 1581 ; 1610; 1621 ; 1645; 

1658; 1691; 1797; 1812; 1833. 
Index Tridentinus, 1595. 
Indulgences, 1150; 1164; 1275; 1299; 

1343; 1412; 1517; 1518; 1519; 1532. 
Infralapsarians, 1590. 
Inquisition, 1206; 1229; 1232; 1480; 

1526; 1556: }565; 1623; 1814. 
Institution of a Christian Man, 1537. 
Intercessio Episcoporum, 323. 
Interim of Ratisbon, 1541 ; of Augs- 
burg, 1548 ; of Leipsic, 1548 ; 1552. 
Investiture, 682 ; 967 ; 1059 ; 1075 ; 

1097; 1106; 1107; 1111; 1112; 

1115; 1119; 1122. 
Ireneeus, 176; 180; 196; 202. 



Irene, 775; 780; 784; 797; 802. 
Irving, Edward; Irvingites ; 1826; 

1833; 1834. 
Isaac Comnenus, Emp. E., 1057. 
Isaac Angelus, Emp. E., 1185. 
Isaac and Alexius IV., Emp. E., 1204. 
Isidore (Gnostic), 122. 
Isidore of Pelusium, 449. 
Isidore of Seville, 602 ; 633 ; 635. 
Ittig, Thomas, 1710. 
Ivo, 1115. 



Jablonski, D. E., 1741. 

Jablonski, P. E., 1757. 

Jacobellus de Misa, 1414. 

Jacobites, 545 ; 1837. 

Jacobus Baradaeus, 545. 

Jagello, 1385. 

Jager, J. W. s 1720. 

Jahn, J., 1817. 

James St., the Elder, 43. 

James St., the Just, Epistle of, 61 ; 
death of, 62. 

Jansenist Controversy, 1567 ; 1569 ; 
1579; 1587; 1597; 1607; 1611; 
1638; 1640; 1642; 1650; 1655; 
1665; 1668; 1679; 1705; 1708; 
1711; 1717; 1720; 1723; 1728; 
1730; 1752. 

Jansenius Cornelius, 1638. 

Jerome, 363 ; 375 ; 378 ; 380 ; 386 ; 
390; 394; 404; 412; 426. 

Jerome of Prague, 1400; 1402; 1409; 
1412; 1414; 1416. 

Jerome Savoranola, 1498. 

Jerusalem, Assembly at, 49 (al. 52) 
Destruction of, 70 (al. 72). 

Jesuits, 1540 ; 1541 ; 1549; 1550; 1551 
1552; 1554; 1556; 1561; 1571 
1575; 1585; 1600; 1604; 1606 
1610; 1616; 1620; 1631; 1634 
1640; 1655; 1657; 1699; 1704 
1705; 1708; 1715; 1750; 1755 
1758; 1760; 1765; 1767; 1773 
1775; 1814; 1819. 

Jewel's Apology, 1562. 

Jewish War, 66; 70 ; 135. 

Jews, 33 ; 34 ; 37 ; 41 ; 42 ; 45 ; 46 
55; 66; 114; 132 ; 135 ; 175; 178 
220 ; 279 ; 300 ; 325 ; 415 ; 424 ; 429 
431; 433; 450; 510; 533; 536; 538 
540; 541; 550; 567; 573; 581; 586 
653; 1450; 1495; 1513; 1728. 

Joachites, 1210. 

Joan, 850. 

Johannes Scholasticus, 578. 

Johannes Presbyter, 1133. 

John, St., Epistles of, 68 or 69 ; Re- 
velation of, 96 or 97 ; Gospel of, 97 
or 98 ; death of, about 100. 



ii 4 



488 



INDEX. 



John the Faster, 582 ; 587 ; 596. 

John of Damascus, 730 ; 750. 

John Scotus Erigena, 817; 845; 853; 

886. 
John of Salisbury, 1181. 
John de Monte Corvino, 1289; 1307. 
John of Janduno, 1327. 
John a Lasco, 1556 ; 1560. 
John, Elector of Saxony, 1525; 1526; 

1527; 1528. 
John Frederic, Elector of Saxony, 1531. 
John Zimisces, Emp. E., 969 ; 970. 
John II. (Comnenus), Emp. E., 1118. 
John III. (Vatazes), Greek Emp., 

1222. 
John IV. (Palasologus), Emp. Const., 

1341. 
John V. (Cantacuzenus), Emp. Const., 

1347. 
John VI., Emp. Const., 1396. 
John VII. (Palaeologus), Emp. Const., 

1425. 
Jonas, Bp. of Orleans, 843. 
Jonas, Justus, 1555. 
Joris, David, 1556. 
Jornandes, 544. 
Joseph I., Emp. Ger., 1704. 
Joseph II., Emp. Ger., 1765; 1780; 

1781 ; 1786. 
Jovian, Emp., 363. 
Jovinian, 388. 
Jovius, Paul, 1552. 
Jubilees, 1300; 1350; 1390; 1450; 

1475; 1600; 1725. 
Jude, St., Epistle of, 64 or 65. 
Judicatum, 546 ; 548. 
Julian, Emp., 351 ; 355 ; 361 ; 362. 
Julian, Pelagian Bp., 419. 
Julianists, 521. 
Julius Cassian, 196. 
Julius, Nepos, Emp. W., 474. 
Junius, Francis, 1602. 
Jurieu, P., 1713. 

Jus Prima rum Precum, 1708 ; 1709. 
Justin I., Emp. E., 518 ; 524. 
Justin II., Emp. E., 565; 572. 
Justin Martyr, 148 ; 158 ; 163; 165. 
Justinian I., Emp. E.,527 ; 528 ; 529 J 

531; 532; 534; 535 ; 538 ; 539 ; 

540 ; 541 ; 547 ; 550 ; 553 ; 556 ; 

563. 
Justinian II., Emp. E., 685; restored, 

705. 
Juvencus, 331. 



Kant, Immanuel, 1804. 
Keith, George, 1695. 
Keller, G., 1827. 
Kennicolt, B., 1783. 
Kidder, Richard, 1701. 



Kiermander, 1759- 

Kilian, 690. 

King's Book, the, 1543. 

Knapp, G. C, 1825. 

Knights of St. John of Jerusalem, 1 1 80. 

See also Hospitalers. 
Knights Templar, 1 120 ; 1128,'; 1291; 

1304; 1307; 1310; 1311;'l314. 
Knights Teutonic. See Teutonic. 
Knipperdolling, 1534. 
Knox, John, 1547; 1555; 1572. 
Kocher, J. C, 1772. 
Koppe, J. B., 1791. 
Koitholt, Christian, 1694. 
Kraft, F. W., 1758. 

L. 

Labadie, J., 1674. 

Labadists, 1669. 

Lactantius, 320 ; 326. 

Lambertini, Prosper, 1740 ; 1758. 

Lambeth Articles, 1595. 

Lammists, 1664. 

Lampe, F. A., 1728. 

Lanfranc, 1042; 1059; 1062; 1070; 

1088. 
Lange, J., 1745. 
Langton, Stephen, 1228. 
Lapsed, Restoration of the, 203 ; 251 ; 

253; 304. 
Lardner, Nathanael, 1768. 
Latimer, 1554 ; 1555. 
Latin Empire in the East, 1204 — 

1261. 
La Trappe, Order of, 1664. 
Laud, William, 1633; 1640; 1645. 
Launoi, John, 1677. 
Laurentius, 498. 
Laurentius Valla, 1465. 
Lavater, J. C, 1801. 
Laymann, Paul, 1625. 
Lazarists, 1631. 
Lee, Ann, 1784. 
Le Fevre, James, 1537. 
Leipsic, Disputation at, 1519. 
Leland, Joh^ 1766. 
Lenfant, J., 1728. 

Leo I. (the Thracian), Emp. E„, 457. 
Leo II., Emp. E., 474. 
Leo III. (Isauricus), Emp. E., 717; 

726 ; 730. 
Leo IV, Emp. E., 775. 
Leo V. (the Armenian), Emp. E., 813 ; 

814. 
Leo VI. (the Philosopher), Emp. E., 

886. 
Leo I., or the Great, Pope, 440 ; 447; 

451 ; 452; 455; 457. 
Leo X., Pope, 1513 ; 1520. 
Leo Allatius, 1648 ; 1669. 
Leonides, 202. 



INDEX. 



489 



Leontius, Emp. E., 695. 

Leopold I., Emp. Ger., 1657. 

Leopold II., Emp. Ger., 1790. 

Less, L., 1587. 

Less, G., 1797. 

Lessing, 1777. 

Leszinsky, Casimir, 1689. 

Leydekker, M., 1721. 

Libanius, 396. 

Licinius, 312; 314; 323. 

Lightfoot, John, 1675. 

Liguorians, 1732; 1749; 1820. 

Limborch, Philip, 1712. 

Lindsey, Theophilus, 1774. 

Litanies, 469. 

Lbffler, J. H. C, 1816. 

Lollards, 1300; 1379; 1388; 1395; 
1400; 1414. 

Lombard, Peter, 1159; 1164. 

Lombards, 568 ; 578; 586; 712; 751; 
756; 774. 

Lord's Day, 321. 

Lord's Supper, 33 ; 35 ; 215 ; 256 
end of 3d cent. ; end of 4th cent. 
494 ; end of 5th cent. ; 506 ; 604 
750; 787; 813; 831; 844; 993 
1048; 1050; 1054; 1059; 1078 
1106; 1120; 1140; 1185; 1204 
1215; 1260; 1264; 1381; 1414 
1524; 1525; 1528; 1529; 1537 
1539; 1548; 1549; 1552; 1558 
1667. 

Loscher, V. E., 1749. 

Lothaire I., Emp. W., 843. 

Lothaire II., Emp. Ger., 1125. 

Louis the Pious, Emp. W., 814 ; 822 ; 
828 ; 831 ; 833 ; 834. 

Louis of Bavaria, Emp. Ger., 1327. 

Lowth, R., 1787. 

Loyola, Ignatius, 1521; 1523; 1524; 
1526; 1534; 1537; 1540; 1556; 
1623. 

Lucian the Martyr, 312. 

Lucifer, Luciferians, 370. 

Lucius, 178. 

Luitprand, 968. 

Luke, St., 46 ; 50; Gospel by, 63 or 64. 

Lull, 753. 

Lully, Raymond, 1315. 

Luther, Martin, 1483 ; 1501 ; 1505 
1508; 1509; 1510; 1512; 1517 
1518; 1519; 1520; 1521; 1522 
1523; 1524; 1525; 1526; 1527 
1529; 1530; 1533; 1534; 1535 
1537; 1539; 1540; 1541; 1543 
1545; 1546. 



M. 



Macarius the Elder, 390. 
Macarius the Younger, 395. 



Macedonians, Macedonius, 360; 361. 

Macrinus, Emp., 217. 

Magdeburg Centuries, 1560; 1574. 

Mai, J. H., 1719. 

Maimbourg, Louis, 1686. 

Maine, Cuthbert, 1577. 

Major, George, 1574. 

Majorian, Emp. W., 457. 

Majorinus, 31 1. 

Majoristic Controversy, 1551; 1553; 

1556; 1562. 
Mamertus, Bp. of Vienne, 463 ; 469. 
Mamertus, Claudianus, Presbyter, 473. 
Mandates, Provisional, 1215. 
Mandeville, 1733. 
Manes, 240 ; 276. 
Manichees, Manicheism, 274 ; 276 ; 

296; 372; 390; 400; 445; 602. 
Manuel I., Emp. E., 1143. 
Manuel II., Emp. Const., 1391. 
Marc, J., 1731. 
Marca, Peter de, 1662. 
Marcella, 163. 

Marcellus of Ancyra, 336 ; 341 ; 351. 
Marcia, 180. 
Marcian, Emp. E., 450. 
Marcianus Capella, 491. 
Marcion, 175; 207. 
Marcus of Palestine, 1 40. 
Marcus Eugenicus, 1438. 
Maresius (Desmarets), Samuel, 1658; 

1675. 
Maresius, S. L. E., 1802. 
Maria Theresa, Empress Ger., 1740. 
Marius Mercator, 420. 
Marius Victor, poet, 442. 
Mark, St., 50; 61 ; Gospel by, 61. 
Maronites, end of 7th cent. ; 1182; 

1837. 
Marpeger, B. W., 1746. 
Marpurg, Conferences at, 1527 ; 1529. 
Marriage of the Clergy, 305 ; 388 ; 450. 

See also Celibacy. 
Marsilius of Padua, 1327. 
Marsilius Ficinus, 1499. 
Martene, Edmund, 1739. 
Martin of Tours, 375 ; 400. 
Martin of Braga, 563. 
Martin, Pope, 649 ; 653. 
Martin, Raymond, 1285. 
Martina, 226. 
Martyn, Henry, 1812. 
Martyr, Peter, 1539; 1548; 1552; 

1562. 
Martyrologium Romanum, 1586. 
Martyrs, Commemoration of, 167 ; 256 ; 

end of 4th cent. ; end of 5th cent. 
Masius, H. G., 1709. 
Masora, 510. 

Mass. See Lord's Supper, 
Massilians, 425. 



490 



INDEX. 



Massillon, J. B., 1742. 

Massuet, R., 1716, 

Mastricht, P., 1706. 

Matthew, St., Gospel by, 37 ; 61. 

Matthew's Bible, 1537. 

Matthias of Jannow, 1394. 

Matthias at Munster, 1534. 

Matthias, Emp. Ger., 1612. 

Matthias, at New York, 1832. 

Maur, St., Congregation of, 1618. 

Maurice, Peter, Abbot of Clugny, 1122; 

1156. 
Maurice, Duke of Saxony, 1541 ; 1543. 
Mauritius, Emp. East, 582 ; 59 1 ; 593. 
Maximilian I., Emp. Ger., 1493 ; 1510 ; 

1519. 
Maximilian, II., Emp. Ger., 1564; 

1569. 
Maximinus, Emp., 235. 
Maximus, Usurper, 383. 
Maximus, Emp. W., 455. 
Maximus, Confessor, 646 ; 653 ; 662. 
Mayer, J. R, 1712. 
Mayronius, Francis, 1325. 
Meisner, Balth., 1626. 
Melanchthon,1497; 1514; 1518; 1519 

1521; 1524; 1527; 1530; 1535 

1539; 1543; 1548; 1553; 1558 

1560. 
Meletian Schism, first, 306; 325; second, 

361 ; 362 ; 400. 
Melito, 170. 
Menander, 96. 
Mendelsohn, Moses, 1785. 
Mendicants, 1207; 1220; 1221 ; 1223; 

1231; 1232; 1245; 1256; 1274 j 

1355 ; 1360. 
Menno Simonis, 1537 ; 1561. 
Mennonites, 1561 ; 1581 ; 1626 ; 1632 ; 

1664 ; 1755; 1800. 
Menzer, Balth., 1627. 
Messalians, 370. 
Methodists, Methodist Churches, 1739; 

1741; 1766; 1788; 1790; 1797; 

1801; 1803; 1810; 1812: 1814; 

1821; 1823; 1833. 
Methodius, 855 ; 863 ; 868 ; 879 ; 880 ; 

894. 
Metropolitans, 331 ; 343. 
Meyer, 1816. 

Michael L, Emp. E., 811. 
Michael II. (Balbus), Emp. E., 820 ; 

827. 
Michael III., Emp. E., 842. 
Michael IV., Emp. E., 1034. 
Michael V., Emp. E., 1041. 
Michael VI. ( Stratioticus), Emp. E., 

1055. 
Michael VII., Emp. E., 1071. 
Michael Psellius, 1050. 
Michael Cerularius, 1046 ; 1053 ; 1054. 



Michael Palaeologus, Greek Emp., 1261 ; 

1274. 
Michael de Bay. See Baius. 
Michaelis, J. H., 1720. 
Michaelis, J. D., 1791. 
Micislaus, 966 ; 997. 
Middle Ages, barbarism of, 510. 
Middleton, Richard, 1304. 
Milan, Edict of, 313. 
Milicz, John, 1360; 1367. 
Millenary Petition, 1603. 
Millenium, 155 ; 157 ; 262. 
Miltitz, 1519; 1520. 
Ministers of the Church, 44 ; 55; 70 ; 

97 ; end of 2d cent. ; 252. 
Minimi. See Franciscans. 
Minucius Felix, 208 ; 220. 
Missale Roman um, 1570. 
Missionary Societies. See Society. 
Missions, Priests of the, 1631. 
Mogelas, Peter, 1643. 
Moguls, 1206; 1221; 1241; 1245; 

1249; 1251; 1258; 1289; 1307; 1369. 
Mohammed, 570; 611; 622; 630; 632. 
Molanus, G. M., 1722. 
Molina, 1588. 

Molinistic Controversies, 1598. 
Molinos, Michael, 1675 ; 1687 ; 1695 ; 

1696. 
Monachism, 193; 250; 309; 325; 340; 

355; 365; 368; 378; 390; 407; 450; 

463; 504; 506; 536; 591 ; 598; 601 ; 

610; 675; end of 7th cent. ; 745; 813; 

829; 910; 969 ; 1072 ; 1073 ; 1215 ; 

1350; 1494; 1524; 1536; 1539. 
Mongus, Peter, 452 ; 478 ; 482. 
Monophysites, 446; 449; 452; 457; 

459; 463; 475; 476; 477; 478; 482; 

488; 512; 521; 529; 535; 536; 538; 

541; 545; 547; 553; 565; 625; end 

of 9th cent. ; 1837. See also Eutyches. 
Monothelites, 625; 633; 648; 656; 648; 

649; 653; 680; end of 7th cent.; 

712; 1837. 
Montanism ; Montanists ; Montanus, 

157; 188; 203; 215; 232. 
Montanus, Benedict Arias, 1598. 
Montfaucon, B., 1741. 
Moore, Henry, 1679. 
Moravians, 863 ; 868 ; 875 ; end of 9th 

cent. 
More, Sir Thomas, 1534; 1535. 
Morgan, Thomas, 1741. 
Morus, S. F. N., 1792. 
Moschus, 610. 

Moscow, Patriarchate of, 1700. 
Mosheim, J. L., 1755. 
Moulin, P. Du, 1658. 
Miinscher, W., 1814. 
Munster, Anabaptists of, 1534. 
Miinter, F., 1830. 



INDEX. 



491 



Munzer, 1523; 1525. 
Muratori, L. A., 1734; 1750. 
Mursinna, S., 1795. 
Musa?us, John, 1645; 1681. 
Musculus, Andreas, 1563. 
Mystics, 1160; 1274; 1350. 

N. 
Nantes, Edict of, 1597 ; 1685. 
Natalius, 203. 

Nativity, Festival of the, 350. 
Nazarenes, 66. 

Necessary Doctrine and Erudition, 1543 
Nemesius, 399. 
Nepos, 262. 
Nerva, Emp., 96. 
Nestorians, Nestorian Controversy, 428 

430; 431; 432; 433; 451; 499; 529 

602; 655; 787; 799; 1025; 1380 

1599; 1837. 
Nestor ius, 428. 
New Jerusalem Church. See Sweden- 

borgians. 
Nicaea, Council of, I., 325 ; II., 787. 
Nicephorus I. (Logotheta), Emp. E., 

802. 
Nicephorus II. (Phocas), Emp. E., 

963; 965. 
Nicephorus III., Emp. E., 1078. 
Nicephorus, Patriarch of Const., 814; 

815; 827. 
Nicephorus Blemmidas, 1253. 
Nicetas Pectoratus, 1050 ; 1054. 
Nicephorus Callistus, 1333. 
Nicephorus Gregoras, 1340; 1353. 
Nicholas L, Pope, 858 ; 863. 
Nicholas de Clemangis, 1394; 1420; 

1441. 
Nicholas of Hussinetz, 1417. 
Nicholas de Cusa, 1464. 
Nicholas, Henry, 154; 1555. 
Nicolaitans, 104; 188, 
Nicolas de Lyra, 1325 ; 1339. 
Niemeyer, A. H., 1828. 
Nilus Doxipatrius, 1042. 
Niobes, Niobites, 565. 
Niphon, 1143. 
Noailles, Abp. of Paris, 1708 ; 1711; 

1717; 1720; 1728. 
Noel's Catechism, 1563. 
Noetus, 230. 
Nonconformists, 1565; 1572; 1573; 

1669; 1686. 
Nonjurors, 1688; 1714. 
Nonnus, 394 ; 410. 
Norbert, 1118 ; 1121; 1126. 
Noris, H., 1704. 
Nosselt, J. A., 1807. 
Notker Labeo, 1022. 
Novatianism, 251 ; 254. 
No vat us and Felicissimus, 251. 



Novels, 1130. 

Nuremberg, Diets of, 1522; 1524. 

Nuremberg, Pacification of, 1531. 

O. 

Occam, William, 1324; 1347. 

Occhino, Bernardino, 1540 ; 1564. 

Odenatus, 264. 

Odo, 927. 

Odoacer, 475 ; 476. 

(Ecolampadius, 1482; 1519; 1524; 

1525; 1531. 
Olaf Trygvesen, 997. 
Olearius Caspar, 1587. 
Olearius, G., 1715. 
Olga, 955. 

Olivetan, Robert, 1535. 
Olybrius, Emp. W., 472. 
Onkelos, 46. 
Ophites, 140. 
Optatus of Milevi, 384. 
Oratory, Priests of the (at Rome), 

1548; 1574; (in France), 1613. 
Ordeals, 829. 
Organs, 800. 
Origen, 204; 213; 214; 215; 220; 228; 

229; 230; 231; 232; 235; 238, 239; 

240; 250; 252; 254; 309. 
Origenist Controversy, 296; 378; 395; 

399; 401; 407; 541. 
Orleans, Brethren of, 1016. 
Orosius, Paul, 418 ; 471. 
Orsi, J. A., 1761. 
Orthodox Confession of the Greek 

Church, 1643. 
Orthodoxy, Festival of, 842. 
Osianler, 1552. 
Osiandrian Controversy, 1549; 1555, 

1556. 
Ostrogoths, 397. 
Othol. (the Great ),Emp. W., 936; 951 ; 

955; 960; 961 ; 963; 969. 
Otho II., Emp. W., 973, 
Otho III., Emp. W., 983. 
Otho IV., Emp. Ger., 1208. 
Otho, Bp. of Bamberg, 1124; 1128; 

1139. 
Ottoman Empire, 1299; 1352. 
Oxford Decree, 1683. 

P. 

Pachomius, 325. 
Pachymeres, 1307. 
Pagani, 368. 
Pagi, F., 1721. 
Pagninus, 1541. 
Paine, Thomas, 1793. 
Palamas, Gregory, 1340; 1355. 
Palladius, 407. 
Paludanus, Peter, 1342. 
Pamphilus, 307 ; 309. 



492 



INDEX. 



Pantaenus, 180; 188; 193. 

Papacy. See Rome, Church of. 

Paphnutius, 325. 

Papias, 119; 163. 

Pareus, David, 1622. 

Parker's Bible, 1568. 

Parsons, 1580; 1581. 

Pascal, Blaise, 1656 ; 1662. 

Paschal Controversy, 158; 196; 325; 

326 ; 602 ; 628 ; 664 ; end of 7th 

cent. 
Passau, Treaty of, 1552. 
Passionei, D., 1761. 
Paterini, 1179. 
Patriarchate, 400 ; 430. 
Patrick, 432 ; 454 ; 460. 
Patripassians, 193. 
Paul, St., 35 ; 42 ; 44 ; 45 ; 46 ; 47 ; 

48 ; 49 ; 50 ; 54 ; 58 ; 60 ; 63 ; 64 ; 

65; 66. 
Paul of Samosata, 260 ; 265 ; 269 ; 

272; 274. 
Paul the Hermit, 250 ; 340. 
Paula, 404. 
Paulicians, 650; 680; 685; 717; 780; 

811 ; 845', 871 ; 970; 1010. 
Paulinus (of Nola), 409; 431. 
Paulinus (of Aquileia), 804. 
Pearce, Z., 1774. 
Pearson, John, 1688. 
Peasants, War of the, 1523; 1525. 
Pecock, Reginald, 1458. 
Pelagianism, Pelagius, 404 ; 410 

411 ; 415; 416; 417; 418; 419 

420 ; 425 ; 432 ; 442 ; 446 ; 452 

469; 529. 
Pelagius, Patriarch of Rome, 587. 
Penance. See Discipline of the 

Church. 
Penitentiary Presbyters, 256. 
Penitents, White, 1399. 
Penn, William, 1666; 1668; 1682; 

1718. 
Pepin the Short, 752; 756; 759. 
Peregrinus, death of, 165. 
Perkins, William, 1602. 
Perpetual Edict, 130. 
Persecutions, 33 ; 34 ; 36 

100; 107 ; 111 ; 114 
163; 180 



138; 150; 

212; 222; 235; 248 

252; 257; 274; 296 



64; 70; 81 ; 

117; 122; 

201 ; 203 ; 

249 ; 250 ; 

303; 314; 

527; 540; 
Huguenots : 



342; 420; 483; 476 
697 ; 820. See also 
Propagation of the Gospel ; Reform- 
ation ; Waldenses. 

Perth, Articles of, 1618 ; 1638. 

Petavius, Dionysius, 1644; 1652. 

Peter, St., 35 ; 43 ; 66; First Epistle 
of, 64 ; Second Epistle, 65 ; Patri- 
mony of, 1220. 



Peter Chrysologus, 456. 

Peter Mongus, 452 ; 478 ; 482. 

Peter the Fuller, 463; 471; 485; 

488. 
Peter the Hermit. See Crusades. 
Peter of Bruys, 1103 ; 1124. 
Peter the Venerable. See Maurice. 
Peter Cantor, 1197. 
Peter Comestor, 1198. 
Peter of Blois, 1200. 
Peter of Corbeil, 1222. 
Peter Aureolus, 1343. 
Peter Martyr, 1539; 1548; 1552; 

1562. 
Peter's Pence, 792. 
Petersen, J. W., 1727. 
Petrarch, 1363; 1374. 
Petrobrusians, 1124. 
Peucer, 1570; 1574. 
Peysel, Conrad, 1724. 
Pfaff, C. M., 1720; 1760. 
Pfeffinger, 1555. 
Pfeiffer, A., 1698. 
Phantasiasts, 521. 
Philastrius, 374 ; 387. 
Philemon, Epistle to, 62 or 63. 
Philip, Emp., 244. 
Philip, Landgrave of Hesse, 1526; 

1527. 
Philip of Neri, 1548. 
Philippians, Epistle to the, 62 or 63. 
Philippicus, Emp. E., 710, 
Philippopolis, Council of, 347. 
Philoponus, 565. 
Philostorgius, History of, 425. 
Philostratus, 218. 
Philoxenus, 449 ; 488. 
Phocas, Emp. E., 602 ; 606. 
Phoebadius, 359. 
Photinus, 346 ; 351 ; 357. 
Photius, Patriarch of Constantinople, 

858; 861; 863; 867; 878; 879; 

886; 891. 
Phthartolatree, 521. 
Piarists, Order of, 1616. 
Pictet, Benedict, 1696; 1724. 
Pictures and Images in Churches, 305 ; 

370. See also Images. 
Picus, John, of Mirandola, 1 494. 
Pierius, 247. 

Pilate, Pontius, 33 ; 36 ; Acts of, 311. 
Pilgrimages, 745 ; 1046; 1064. 
Pin, Du, L. E., 1686; 1717; 1719. 
Pinkzovians, 1563. 

Pisa, General Council of, 1409 ; 1511. 
Piscator, John, 1603. 
Pistoja, Council of, 1786; 1787; 1794. 
Pistorius, 1543. 
Pius II., Pope, 1458; 1462. 
Placette, La, J., 1718. 
Planck, G. J., 1833. 



INDEX. 



493 



Platon, 1812. 

Platonism, Platonists, 49 ; 204 ; 226 ; 
232; 439; 451 ; 529. 

Pliny to Trajan, and Trajan to Pliny, 
Epistles of, 111. 

Plotinus, 232 ; 262 ; 270. 

Plutshau, 1704. 

Pneumatomachi. See Macedonians. 

Poissy, Conference at, 1561. 

Pole, Cardinal, 1554; 1555; 1556; 
1558. 

Polycarp, 158 ; 167. 

Pomeranus. See Bugenhagen. 

Pontius of Aries, 1016. 

Pontoppidan, E., 1764. 

Pope, 655. 

Porphyry, 262 ; 268 ; 304. 

Port Royal, 1233; 1626; 1638; 1665; 
1705; 1708. 

Possevin, Antony, 1 580 ; 1611. 

Pothinus, 176. 

Potter, John, 1747. 

Pragmonstratensian Canons, 1121 ; 1126. 

Praxeas, 193 ; 203. 

Prayers for the Dead, 215. 

Prayers to Saints, 800. 

Precentors, 370. 

Predestination, Predestinarian Contro- 
versies, 442; 469; 475; 510; 529 
847 ; 853 ; 855 ; 1551 ; 1554; 1555 
1558; 1567; 1590; 1595; 1600: 
1603; 1618; 1663; 1677; 1824. 

Presbyter. See Ministers ; Constitu- 
tion and Government of the Church. 

Presbyter Penitentiarius, 390. 

Presbyterians, 1566; 1572; 1573; 
1577; 1592; 1638; 1647; 1655; 
1689; 1691; 1795; 1810; 1812. 

Presbytery (English), 1645. 

Prideaux, Humphrey, 1724. 

Priestley, Joseph, 1804. 

Priscillianists, 372 ; 380 ; 383 ; 400 ; 
561. 

Proba Falconia, 394. 

Probus, Emp., 276. 

Procession of the Holy Ghost, Contro- 
versy concerning the, 589 ; 768 ; 796 ; 
809; 867. 

Procopius (of Gaza), 527. 

Procopius (historian), 563. 

Procopowitz, Theophanes, 1741. 

Professio Fidei Tridentina, 1564. 

Propagation of the Gospel, 33 ; 34 ; 37 
40; 41 ; 45; 65; 81; 188; 193 
end of 2d cent.; 204; 231; 248 
252 ; 253 ; 259 ; 282 ; end of 3d 
cent.; 314; 319; 323; 328; 341; 
350; 361; 370; 388; 394; 397; 
400 ; 425 ; 431 ; 433 ; 451 ; 454 ; 
467; 477; 504; 514; 527; 533; 
561; 596; 598; 602: 604; 606; 



627; 630; 631; 634; 635; 640; 
648; 651; 678; 690; 696 ; end of 
7th cent.; 715; 730; 735; 739 
755; 768; 799; 809; 814; 820 
826; 828; 830; 831; 834; 848 
855 ; 861 ; 862 ; 865 ; 877 ; 878 
894; end of 9th cent.; 900; 911 
924; 934; 938; 939; 945; 951 
955 ; 965 ; 966 ; 967 ; 972 ; 982 
988 ; 997 ; 999 ; 1003 ; 1007 ; 1008 
1016; 1065; 1076; 1120; 1124 
1125; 1133, 1156; 1157; 1162 
1169; 1186; 1208; 1215; 1230 
1258; 1275; 1289; 1307; 1311 
1325; 1343; 1385; end of 15th 
cent.; 1517; 1522; 1529; 1556 
1570; 1576; 1603; 1616; 1621 
1627; 1630; 1640; 1650; 1652 
1658; 1663; 1698; 1699; 1700 
1704; 1721; 1723; 1728; 1736 
1749; 1751; 1753; 1792; 1793 
1795; 1796; 1797; 1800; 1804 
1808; 1810; 1814; 1815; 1816 
1819; 1823; 1824; 1826; 1827 
1828. 

Prophesyings, 1 574 ; 1577. 

Prosper of Aquitaine, 461. 

Proterius, 452 ; 457 ; 

Protest and Appeal, 1529. 

Protestants, origin o of the name, 1529. 
See Reformation. 

Protestant Churches, Notes concerning, 
1812; 1837. 

Protevangelion, 37. 

Protosyncelli ; end of 7th cent. 

Prudentius, poet, 399. 

Prudentius of Troyes, 849 ; 853. 

Prussian Agenda, 1834. 

Ptolemy, 140. 

Publicani, 1179. 

Pulleyn, Robert, 1150. 

Purgatory, Doctrine of, 240 ; 407 ; 604 ; 
615; 950; 1000; 1164; 1439; 
1547. 

Purification, Festival of the, 526. 

Puritans, 1564; 1573; 1575; 1585; 
1589; 1593; ,1603; 1604. 

Pyrrhus, Patriarch of Constantinople, 
646. 



Q. 

Quadratus, Apology of, 1 22. 
Quakers. See Friends. 
Quartodecimani, 326. 
Quatuor Propositiones Cleri Gallicani, 

1682. 
Quenstedt, J. A., 1688. 
Quesnel, Paschasius, 1670; 1693; 1708; 

1711 ; 1719. 
Quien, Le, M., 1735. 



494 



INDEX. 



Quietists of Mount Athos, 1340; 1341 : 

1347; 1350. 
Quietists (Molinist), 1687 ; 1695. 
Quinisextum, 692. 
Quirini, A.M., 1755. 
Quistorp, John, 1648. 

R. 

Rabanus Maurus, 822 ; 829 ; 831 ; 
845; 847; 856. 

Racovian Catechism, 1 605 ; 1684. 

Radbert, Paschasius, 831 ; 844; 865. 

Rambach, J. J., 1 735. 

Rambach, F. E., 1 775. 

Ranee, De, 1664. 

Raskolnites, 1666; 1762; 1785. 

Ratherius, 974. 

Rationalism, 1755 ; 1778; 1782 ; 1793 ; 
1796; 1799; 1820; 1824 : 1830; 1837. 

Ratisbon, Interim of, 1541. 

Ratisbon, Consultation at, 1719. 

Ratramn, 844 ; 850 ; 868. 

Raymond of Toulouse, 1198; 1 325. 

Raymond de Penna forti, 1234; 1238. 

Raynaud, Theoph., 1 663. 

Realists and Nominalists, 1072. 

Reccared, 589. 

Rechenberg, A., 1721. 

Redemptorists, 1 732 ; 1749; 1820. 

Reformation, 1309; 1311 ; 1360; 1392 
1394; 1406; 1414; 1431; 1479 
1489; 1498; 1505; 1517; 1519 
1520; 1521; 1523; 1524; 1525 
1526; 1527; 1528; 1529; 1532 
1533; 1534; 1535; 1536; 1537 
1538; 1539; 1541; 1542; 1544 
1545; 1546; 1547; 1549; 1550 
1553; 1555; 1556; 1558; 1560 
1563; 1564; 1570; 1606; 1614 
1648; 1686; 1688. 

Reinbeck, J. G., 1741. 

Reinhard, F. V., 1812. 

Relics, 360. 

Relief Church, 1752. 

Religion, state of, at the beginning of 
tbe Christian Era, 49. 

Religious Edict (Prussian), 1788. 

Religious Schools, Fathers of. See 
Piarists. 

Remigius of Rheims, 469. 

Remigius of Lyons, 853 ; 855 ; 859. 

Remonstrants, 1610,1611; 1613; 1618; 
1630, 1631; 1661; 1664. 

Renaudot, E., 1720. 

Restitution, Edict of, 1629, 1648. 

Reuchlin, 1513, 1514; 1516; 1522. 

Rhynsburgians, 1630. 

Ricci, Matthew, 1603 ; 1610. 

Ricci, Scipio, 1786; 1790. 

Richard of St. Victor, 1 173. 

Richer, Edmund, 1633. 



Ricimer, 465 ; 472. 

Ridley, 1550; 1553) 1554; 1555. 

Ries, John, 1580. 

Rivet, Andrew, 1651. 

Robbers, Synod of, 449. 

Robert, Emp. Ger., 1400. 

Robinson, John, 1626. 

Rochester, Earl of, 1 680. 

Rodolph I. (of Hapsburg), Emp. Ger., 
1273. 

Rodolph II., Emp. Ger., 1576 ; 
1578; 1601. 

Roell, H. A., 1718. 

Rogations, 469. 

Roman Catechism, 1566. 

Romans, Epistle to the, 57. 

Romanusl. (Lecapenus), Emp. E., 919. 

Romanus II., Emp. E., 959. 

Romanus III., Emp. E., 1028. 

Romanus IV. (Diogenes), Emp. E., 
1068; 1071. 

Rome, Church of, 98; 196,; 385; 405 
416; 418; 419; 440; 441; 444; 445 
446; 461 ; 463; 465; 472; 480; 483 
494; 496; 502; 503; 521; 531; 538 
567; 587; 591; 596; 606; 613; 628 
641 ; 655 ; 663 ; 675 ; 682 ; 695 ; end of 
7th cent. ;710; 718; 728; 732; 741 
756; 787; 792; 794; 813; 814; 822 
834; 844; 858; 864; 866; 871 ;[875 
879; 888; end of 9th cent. ; 960;'963 
991; 997; 1009; 1046; 1054; 1059 
1066; 1072, 1073; 1075; 1077 



1084; 1085; 


1094; 


1096; 


1106 


1143; 1145; 


1155; 


1157; 


1159 


1198; 1204; 


1208 ; 


1212; 


1213 


1215; 1220; 


1223; 


1244; 


1245 


1265; 1268; 


1273; 


1296; 


1302 


1308; 1317; 


1322; 


1323; 


1324 


1327; 1348; 


1350; 


1389; 


1414 


1422; 1431 ; 


1445; 


1447; 


1456 


1458; 1459; 


1460; 


1495; 


1517 


1540; 1564; 1590; 1593; endcfl6t 


cent. ; 1 602 ; 


1604; 


1606; 


1629 


1646; 1648; 


1652; 


1654; 


1666 


1669; 1676; 


1682; 


1684, 


1685 


1687; 1693; 


1699; 


1700; 


1708 


1709; 1710; 


1713; 


1715; 


1717 


1725; 1726; 


1746; 


1755; 


1765 


1769; 1775; 


1781 ; 


1782; 


1787 


1790; 1793; 


1798; 


1801 ; 


1806 


1809; 1814; 


1823; 


1829; 


1832 


1837. 








Romulus Augus 


:ulus, Emp. W. 


475. 


Rosenmuller, J. 


G., 1815. 




Rosicrucians, 1611. 






Roswitha, 984. 








Rousseau, J. J., 


1778. 






Rua?us, 1739. 








Ruffin, 378 ; 410. 






Ruysbrock, John 


, 1381. 







INDEX. 



495 



Sabatier, P., 1752. 

Sabbatarian Controversy, 1630. 

Sabbatarians, 1691. 

Sabellians, Sabellus, 258. 

Sack, A. F.W., 1786. 

Sack, F. S. G., 1817. 

Sacramental Controversy. See Lord's 

Supper. 
Sacramentaries, 1537; 1538. 
Sacramentum, 204. 
Sacrum Rescriptum, 418. 
Saints' Days, 343. 
Saints, Worship of, 909. 
Saladin Tax, 1200. 
Sales, Francis de, 1618; 1622. 
Salesianerins, Order of, 1618. 
Salmasius, Claudius, 1653. 
Salvian, 439 ; 450 ; 484. 
Samson, Bernardin, 1519. 
Sanchez, Thomas, 1610. 
Sand, Christopher, 1681. 
Sandemanians, 1730. 
Saracens, 647, 648 ; 651 ; 655 ; 669 ; 
697; 706; 707; 711; 714; 717; 732; 
823; 826. 
Sardica, Council of, 347. 
Sarpi, Paul, 1605; 1623. 
Saturninus, 122. 
Saunier, Antony, 1532. 
Saurin, J., 1730. 
Savoy Conference, 166. 
Saw trey, William, 1400. 
Sbinco, 1409, 1410. 
Sceuophylaces, end of 7th cent. 
Schalf, Adam, 1627. 
Schertzer, J. A., 1683. 
Schism. See Meletian ; Novatian. 
Schism, the Great Western, 1378; 1380; 
1389; 1394; 1398; 1403; 1404; 1406; 
1407; 1408 ; 1409; 1414; 1429. 
Schleiermacher, F. E., 1834. 
Schleusner, J. F., 1792; 1831. 
Schlichting, Jonas, 1661. 
Schmid, Sebastian, 1697. 
Schmidt, C. F., 1778. 
Schmidt, J. W., 1796. 
Schmidt, J. E. C, 1831. 
Scholastic Tbejlogy, 604 ; 817 ; 1073 
1086; 1088; 1106; 1125; 1150 
1274; 1286; 1308; 1325; 1333 
1464. 
Schottgen, Christian, 1751. 
Schrbck, J. M., 1808. 
Schultens, A., 1750. 
Schwartz, Valentine, 1622. 
Schwartz, C. F., 1751; 1798. 
Schwenkfeld, Caspar, 1561. 
Scotists. See Thomists and Scotists. 
Scriptures in English, use of the, 1536; 
1539; 1540; 1546; 1547; 1559; 1611. 



Secession Church, Scottish, 1731 ; 1745; 

1747; 1820. 
Seeker, Thomas, 1768. 
Secundus, 325. 
Sedulius, 442. 
Segarelli, Gerard, 1260; 1280; 1286; 

1290; 1300. 
Seiler, G. F., 1807. 
Select Vestry Act, 1663. 
Seljukians, 1000; 1038; 1055; 1063; 

1072; 1075; 1076; 1086; 1092; 

1103. 
Selnecker, Nicholas, 1592. 
Semiarians. See Arianism. 
Seminarium Pro Propaganda Fide, 

1627. 
Seminary Priests, Act against, 1585. 
Semipelagians, 425 ; 434 ; 475 ; 529. 
Semler, J. S., 1771; 1782; 1791. 
Sendomir, Council of Faith at, 1570. 
Septimius Severus, Emp., 192. 
Sergius, Patriarch of Constantinople, 

633, 634. 
Servatus Lupus, 853. 
Servetus, Michael, 1531 ; 1553. 
Servites, Order of, 1232. 
Sethites, 140. 
Seven Sleepers, 447. 
Severians, 521. 
Severinus, 482. 

Severus, follower of Tatian, 1 70. 
Severus Septimius, Emp., 193. 
Severus, Emp. W., 461. 
Severus of Constantinople, 488 ; 510 ; 

512. 
Shaftesbury, Earl of, 1713. 
Shakers, 1770; 1774. 
Sherlock, Thomas, 1761. 
Sibylline Books, 135. 
Sicilian Vespers, 1 282. 
Sidonius Apollinaris, 471 ; 488. 
Sigismund, Emp. Ger., 1411. 
Silas, 46 ; 50. 
Silverius, 537. 

Simeon Metaphrastes, 912; 976. 
Simeon Stylites, 425 ; 461. 
Simon Magus, 35 ; 42. 
Simon, R., 1712. 

Simon, St.; Simonians, St., 1825; 1829. 
Simony, 596 ; 675. 
Simplicius, Patriarch of Rome, 480. 
Singers, 370. 
Sirmium, Councils and Creeds of, 351 ; 

357; 358; 359. 
Sirmond, J., 1651. 
Sisters of Charity, Order of, 1634. 
Six Articles, Act of the, 1539; 1546. 
Skelton, Philip, 1789. 
Slavi, 514. 
Sleidan, 1556. 
' Smalcald, Articles of, 1537. 



496 



INDEX. 



Smalcald, League of, 1531; 1535; 

1536; 1538; 1539. 
Smalc'aldic War, 1546. 
Society for Promoting Christian Know- 
ledge, 1698. 
Society for the Propagation of the Gospel 

in Foreign Parts, 1701. 
Society, Baptist Missionary, 1792. 
Society, London Missionary, 1795. 
Society, Scotch Missionary, 1796. 
Society, Dutch Missionary, 1797. 
Society, (English) Church Missionary, 

1800. 
Society, British and Foreign Bible, 

1804. 
Society for Conversion of the Jews, 

1808. 
Society, Great American Missionary, 

1810. 
Society, Methodist Missionary, 1814. 
Society, American Baptist Missionary, 

1814. 
Society, United Missionary, 1816. 
Society, Evangelical Missionary, 1816. 
Society, North American Protestant 

Episcopal Church, 1820. 
Societies, Auxiliary Missionary, 1819. 
Society, American Methodist Mission- 
ary, 1819. 
Society, Berlin, for Evangelical Mis- 
sions, 1823. 
Society, Paris Evangelical Missionary, 

1824. 
Society, American Inland Missionary, 

1826. 
Society, Missionary, at Lausanne, 1827. 
Society, Rhenish Missionary, 1828. 
Socinians, 1546; 1563; 1620; 1638; 

1658; 1758; 1795; 1817. 
Socinus, Laelius, 1547 ; 1551; 1562. 
Socinus, Faustus, 1574; 1578; 1592; 

1604. 
Socrates, History of, 439. 
Sollicitudo Omnium, Bull entitled, 

1814. 
Somaschi, 1528. 
Sonnists, 1664. 
Sophronius, 633 ; 634. 
Southcott, Johanna, 1792; 1814. 
Sozomen, History of, 439. 
Spalatin, George, 1548. 
Spalding, J. G., 1804. 
Spangenberg, A. G., 1792. 
Spanheim, Frederic (the Elder), 1649. 
Spanheim, Frederic (the Younger), 

1701. 
Spener, P. J., 1666; 1675; 1677; 

1686; 1691; 1694; 1700; 1704; 

1 705. 
Spinola, 1695. 
Spinosa, Benedict, 1677. 



Spires, Diet of, 1529. 

Spirituals. See Franciscans. 

Sports, Book of, 1618 ; 1633. 

Stackhouse, Thomas, 1752. 

Stancaristic Controversy, 1551. 

Stange, T. F., 1831. 

Staudlin, K. F., 1826. 

Staupitz, John, 1505; 1524. 

Stedingians. 1235. 

Steinbart, G. S., 1809. 

Stephen, St., 34. 

Stephen, Emp. E., 919. 

Stickna, Conrad, 1367. 

Stobaeus, 499. 

Stoics, 49. ! 

Storr, C. C, 1804. 

Stosch, E. H. D., 1781. 

Sturmio, 745. 

Suarez, Francis, 1613; 1616. 

Sulpicius Severus (historian), 404. 

Sulpicius Severus (Bp.), 591.] 

Superstition ; end of 4th cent. ; 439 

534; 550; 558; 572; 675; 831 

871; 909; 931; 950; 993; 1001 

end of 11th cent.; 1177; 1201 

1220; 1250; 1299; 1652; 1693 

1734. 
Supralapsarians, 1590. 
Supremacy, Oath of, 1559; 1563. 
Sutry, Council of, 1046. 
Swartz, Ildef, 1794. 
Swedenborg, Swedenborgians, 1750; 

1758; 1771; 1772; 1783; 1787; 

1822; 1828. 
Sylvestrians, Order of the, 1231. 
Symeon of Jerusalem, death of, 104 or 

107. 
Symmachus, translator of the Old 

Testament, 1 93 ; 202. 
Symmachus, Roman Patriarch, 498 ; 

503. 
Symphorosa, 121. 
Syncelli, end of 7th cent. 
Syncellus, George, 800. 
Svncretistic Controversy, 1 634 ; 1639; 

"1643; 1645; 1655; 1677; 1689. 
Synergistic Controversy, 1555 ; 1560. 
Synesius, 410 ; 430. 
Synod of Robbers, 449. 
Synodus Palmaris, 503. 

T. 

Taborites, 1420 ; 1433; 1434. 
Tacitus, Emperor, 275. 
Tanchelin, 1115. 
Talmud, Babylonian, 450. 
Tapers, 370. 
Tatian, 158; 165; 176. 
Tatianists, 165. 
Tauler, John, 1361. 
Taverner's Bible, 1539. 



INDEX. 



497 



Taylor, John, 1761. 

Teller, W. A., 1804. 

Templars. See Knights. 

Tenison, T., 1715. 

Terministic Controversy, 1701. 

Tertiary Friars. See Franciscans. 

Tertullian, 196; 198 ; 203; 204; 207; 

218. 
Test Act, 1673; 1827. 
Tetrapolitan Confession, 1530. 
Tetzel, 1517. 

Teutonic Knights, 1192; 1230; 1237. 
Theatines, Order of, 1524. 
Theban Legion, 286. 
Thebuthis, 104. 
Themistians, 521. 
Theoctistus, Bp. of Caesarea, 215. 
Theodahat, 534 ; 536. 
Theodora, 535 ; 537; 556. 
Theodora, Empress E., 1054. 
Theodore Ascidas, 538 ; 541. 
Theodore Balsamon, 1215. 
Theodore, Abp. of Canterbury, 668 ; 

675. 
Theodore Cassiteras, 815. 
Theodore Lascaris I., Greek Emp.,1207. 
Theodore Lascaris II., Greek Emp., 

1259. 
Theodore Metochita, 1332. 
Theodore of Mopsuestia, 428. 
Theodore, Patriarch of Rome, 646. 
Theodore Studites, 814; 815; 826. 
Theodore of Tarsus, 376. 
Theodoret, 429 ; 456. 
Theodoric, 493 ; 518, 
Theodosian Code, 438. 
Theodosius I., Emp. E., 379; 380; 

388; 390; sole emp., 394. 
Theodosius II., Emp. E., 408 ; 415 ; 

429 ; 431 ; 433 ; 434 ; 442 ; 448. 
Theodosius III., Emp. E., 716. 
Theoootian, 178. 

Theodotians, Theodotus, 193; 203. 
Theodulph, 820. 
Theognostus, 261. 

Theology. See Doctrine of the Church, 
Theonas, 325. 

Theophanes, historian, 817. 
Theophanes Ceramius, 1042. 
Theophanes, Abp. of Nicaea, 1343. 
Theophilanthropic Society, 1796; 1802. 
Theophilus of Alexandria, 401 ; 403 ; 

404 ; 412. 
Theophilus of Antioch, 178. 
Theophilus, Emp. E., 829 ; 830. 
Theophylact, 1078. 
Thessalonians, Epistles to the, 52. 
Theudas, 44. 
Thomas Aquinas, 1245; 1253; 1260; 

1274. 
Thomas of Cantinpre, 1261. 



Thomas a Kempis, 1471. 

Thomists and Scotists, 1 299. 

Thirty Years' War, 1618; 1648. 

Thorn, Conference at, 1645. 

Thundering Legion, 170. 

Tiberius Alexander, 45. 

Tiberius L, Emp., 33. 

Tiberius II., Emp. E., 578. 

Tiberius III., Emp. E.,698. 

Tichonius, 362. 

Till, S., 1713. 

Tillotson, John, 1694. 

Timothy ,Elurus, 452; 457; 459; 

476. 
Timothy, St., 46 ; 50 ; First Epistle to, 

64 ; Second Epistle, 65. 
Timour, or Tamerlane, 1369; 1380; 

1400; 1402; 1404. 
Tindal, Matthew, 1730; 1733. 
Tithes, end of 2d cent, ; end of 4th 

cent. ; 675; 740; 778; 791 ; 794; 

909; 1185; 1215. See also Church 

Property. 
Tittman, J. A. H., 1832. 
Tittnann, K. C, 1820. 
Titus, Emp., 79. 
Titus, Epistle to, 64. 
Togrul Beg, 1038 ; 1054. 
Toland, J., 1722. 
Toleration, Act of, 1779. 
Toleration, Edict of, by Constantine 

and Licinius, 312. 
Toleration, Edict of, by the Emperor 

Joseph, 1781. 
Toletus, 1596. 
Tollner, J. G., 1774. 
Torgau, Articles of, 1530. 
Torgau, Book of, 1576. 
Torgau, League of, 1526. 
Torgau, Visitation Articles of, 1592. 
Tostatus, Alphonso, 1454. 
Totila, 541 ; 547. 
Trajan, Emp., 98. 
Transfiguration, Feast of the, 1456. 
Transubstantiation. See Lord's Supper. 
Travers and Hooker, 1585. 
Tremellius, 1548. 
Trent, Council of, 1544, 1545, 1546; 

1547; 1551 ; 1562; 1563. 
Treuga Dei, 1035; 1041. 
Tria Capitula, Controversy concerning 

the, 544 ; 546 ; 548 ; 551 ; 553. 
Tribonianus, 545. 
Triers, Committee of, 1654. 
Trinity, Holy, Festival of the, 1320; 

1405. 
Trinity, Holy, Order of the, 1 1 98. 
Trisagium, 463; 512. 
Trullari Council, 690. 
Tumblers, 1724. 
Turlupins, 1210; 1372. 



K K 



498 



INDEX. 



Turretin, J. A., 1707 ; 1720 
Tyndal, 1526. 
Tzschirner, H. G., 1828. 

U. 



1737. 



Uniformity, Act of, 1559 ; 1662 


• 


Ulpian, 


222. 




Ulphilas, 370 ; 375. 




Unigenitus, the Bull, 1711 ; 


1717 


1720; 


1725; 1728; 1730; 


1739 


1752. 






Union of Natures in Christ, 378 


; 446 


451. 


See also Monophysites. 




Unitarians, 1565; 1568; 1578; 


1592 


1620; 


1658; 1774; 1795; 


L808. 


Unitas Fatrum. See Brethren. 




Universalists, 1780. 




Universities, 1158; 1206; 1222 


; 1228 


1245; 


1249; 1257; 1260; 


1289 


1298; 


1300; 1303; 1307; 


1308 


1311 ; 


1339; 1343; 1346; 


1348 


1361 ; 


1365 ; 1382 ; 1388 ; 


1391 


1392; 


1398; 1400; 1403; 


1409, 


1410; 


1411 ; 1419; 1426; 


1430; 


1431 ; 


1433 ; 1441 ; 1445 ; 


1450; 


1454; 


1456; 1460; 1463; 


1472 ; 


1474; 


1477 ; 1479 ; 1499 ; 


1502; 


1506; 


1521 ; 1527; 1532; 


1540; 


1544; 


1547 ; 1548 ; 1551 ; 


1552 ; 


1563; 


1564; 1565; 1566; 


1571 ; 


1575; 


1576; 1578; 1582; 


1585 ; 


1591'; 


1592; 1593; 1596; 


1600; 


1607; 


1614; 1621; 1625; 


1632; 


1635 ; 


1636; 1600; 1647; 


1648; 


1655; 


1665; 1668; 1670; 


1673; 


1694; 


1702; 1717; 1735; 


1743; 


1755 ; 


1781; 1786; 1803; 


1809; 


1810; 


1811 ; 1812; 1815; 


1816; 


1819; 


1827; 1828; 1834. 




Unni, 939. 




Ursicinus 
Ursinus, 


, 366. 
Z., 1583. 




Ursulines 


, Order of, 1537. 




Urban VI., Pope., 1378. 




Usher, Abp., 1641 ; 1655. 




Utraquists, 1420. 




Uirecht, 


Church of, 1823. 




Utrecht, 
Uytenbo^ 


Synod of, 1763. 

jaert, John, 1609; 1643 





Valens, Emp. E., 364. 
Valentinian I., Emp. W., 364. 
Valentinian and Gratian, Emp. W 

375. 
Valentinian II., Emp.VV., 388. 
Valentinian III., Emp. W., 424. 
Valentinus, 140. 
Valerian, Emp., 253. 
Vallombrosa. Order of, 1038. 
Vanini, 1629. 



Vasquez, Gabriel, 1604. 

Vater, J. S., 1825. 

Veccus (orBeccus), John, 1724; 1282; 

1298. 
Venantius Fortunatus, 600. 
Venema, Herm. 1787. 
Verger, Peter Paul, 1548 ; 1565. 
Vespasian, Emp., 69. 
Vespers, Sicilian, 1282. 
Vigilantius, 404. 
Vigilius, Patriarch of Rome, 546 ; 548 ; 

551 ; 553. 
Vigilius of Thapsus, 485. 
Vincent of Beauvais, 1256. 
Vincent of Lerins, 434 ; 448. 
Vincent de Paula, 1631 ; 1660. 
Vincentius Ferrarius, 1419. 
Viret, Peter, 1528 ; 1536 ; 1539 ; 1571. 
Visitation, Feast of the, 1389. 
Vitalian, 512; 514. 
Vitellius, Emp., 69. 
Vitiges, 536. 

Vitringa, Campegius, 1722. 
Vives, John Ludovicus, 1541. 
Voetians. See Cocceian Controversy 
Voetius, Gisbert, 1658 ; 1677. 
Volket, J., 1618. 
Voltaire, 1732; 1778. 
Vossius, G. J., 1649. 

W. 

Wagner, F., 1760. 

Wake, William, 1717 ; 1737. 

Walafried Strabo, 849. 

Walch, C. W. F., 1784. 

Waldenses, 1170; 1178; 1184; 1190; 

1206; 1210; 1309; 1375; 1487; 

1545; 1559; 1665; 1686; 1689. 
Waldo, Peter, 1170; 1197. 
Walton, Bryan, 1661. 
Wandsworth, Presbytery of, 1572. 
Warburton, William, 1738; 1779. 
Warnefried, Paul, 794; 799. 
Wars in France, religious, 1562; 1567; 

1568; 1572; 1574; 1577; 1584; 

1627. 
Waterland, Daniel, 1712; 1742. 
Watts, Isaac, 1748. 
Weigel, Valentine, 1588. 
Weill er, Caj., 1826. 
Weisman, C. E., 1747. 
Weller, J., 1645; 1662. 
Wenceslaus, E. G., 1378. 
Werenfels, S., 1740. 
Wernsdorf, G., 1728. 
Wesel, John of, 1479. 
Wesley, John, 1728; 1731; 1735; 

1738; 1741; 1746; 1791. 
Wessel, John, 1489. 
Westphal, Joachim, 1552 ; 1554. 
Westphalia, Peace of, 1684. 



INDEX. 



499 



Wetstein, J. J., 1754. 

Whiston, William, 1712 ; 1752. 

Whitaker, William, 1595. 

Whitby, Daniel, 1726. 

White Penitents, 1399. 

Whitfield, George, 1731 ; 1738 ; 1741 ; 

1746; 1770. 
Whitgift, 1570; 1583. 
Wickliffe, John, 1356; 1360; 1365; 

1370; 1372; 1374; 1376; 1378, 

1379; 1380; 1381; 1382; 1384. 
Wickliffe, doctrines and followers of, 

1396; 1402; 1404; 1408; 1409; 

1410; 1413; 1414; 1458. 
Wilfrid, 675. 
William de St. Amour, 1231; 1256 j 

1260. 
William de Nogaret, 1303. 
Williams, David, 1775. 
Willibrod, 690; 696; 718; 739. 
Wilson, Thomas, 1755. 
Winfried. See Boniface. 
Wissowatius, 1677. 
Witsius, Hermann, 1708. 
Wittemberg, Concord of, 1536. 
Wolf, Christian, 1754. 
Wolf, J. C, 1738. 

Wolfenbuttel Fragments, 1777; 1781. 
Wolsey, Cardinal, 1509 ; 1529. 



Woolston, Thomas, 1733. 
Worms, Concordat of, 1122. 
Worms, Edict of, 1521, 1522 ; 1524 ; 
1529. 

X. 

Xavier, Francis, 1541 ; 1549 ; 1552. 
Ximenes, Cardinal, 1495 ; 1520. 
Xiphilin, John, 1078. 

Z. 

Zacharia?, 1777. 

Zacharias Scholasticus, 518. 

Zanchius Jerome, 1590. 

Zeltner, G. G., 1738. 

Zeno, E. E., 474 ; 476 ; 477; 478 ; 482 

Zenobia, 267 ; 272. 

Zerawitz, Synod of, 1616. 

Ziegenbalg,* Bartholomew, 1704; 1719. 

Ziegler, W. K. L., 1809. 

Zimmerman, E., 1832. 

Zinzendorf, Count, 1709; 1722; 1727; 

1760. 
Ziska, 1417; 1424. 
Zollikoffer, G. J., 1788. 
Zurich, Disputation at, 1523. 
Zwickaw, fanatics of, 1522. 
Zwingle, Ulric, 1484; 1519; 1523; 

1525: 1531. 



THE END. 



CORRECTIONS. 

Page 83. line 20., and page 84. line 13., for " — and 380," read " 381." 
111. line 6. for " III. " read " 77." 
143. line 27. for "409," read "407." 
155. line 7. for " Cyrrhus," read "Pyrrhus." 
— line 11. for "467," read " 647." 
158. line 17. for "XIV." read « IV" 
164. line 14. for " 777." read " II." 
169. line 2. insert + before " John of Damascus." 
195. lines 27, 28. for " Olaf Trygvesen — without effect," read " Iceland was 

discovered about this time, and received some superficial knowledge 

of Christianity." 
216. line 21. for " 77." read « III." 
221. line 1. for " IX" read "XL ;" and transpose " 1059, Order, fyc." to 

" 1095." 
223. line 4. for » III." read " IF." 
265. line 13. for " II." read « III." 
270. line 15. for " Berghards," read " Beghards." 
272. line 18. for "IV." read " 77." 
288. line 4. for "on," read "or." 
302. line 1. for " 1494," read " 1404." 
313. line 21. for " XI." read " XII." 
379. line 27. for " Budaeus," read " Budnams." 
393. line 11. for " Chamer," read " Chamier." 
402. line 25. for " Murasus," read " Musams." 
414. line 6. for " Gilbert," read " Gisbert." 
429. Transpose line 12. to line 6. 
446. line 1. fur " Henmann," read " Heumann." 



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